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Mayfield Handbook of Technical and Scientific Writing
Reference Guide

Mayfield Handbook of Technical and Scientific Writing

A comprehensive guide for effective communication.

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Table of Contents

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15


1. Planning and Producing Documents

  • 1.4.2 Audience Use of Document
  • 1.4.3 Audience Attitudes Toward Writer and Subject
  • 1.4.4 Document Density

    • 2. Document Types

    3. Elements of Technical Documents

    4. Graphs and Figures

  • 4.2 Common Graphics

  • 4.3 General Guidelines for Graphics

    • 5. Paragraphs

  • 5.3 Paragraph Development

    • 6. Sentences

  • 6.9 Lack of Parallelism

  • 6.10 Choppy Sentences

  • 6.11 Misplaced Modifiers

  • 6.12 Dangling Modifiers

  • 6.13 Double Negatives

  • 6.14 Faulty Comparisons

  • 6.15 Inappropriate Shifts

  • 6.16 Sequence of tenses

  • 6.17 Pronoun Reference

  • 6.18 Pronoun Case

    • 7. Words

    8. Punctuation

    9. Mechanics

    10. Citing Sources and Listing References

    11. Parts of Speech

    12. Parts of Sentences

    13. Sentence Types and Word Order

    14. Usage Glossary


    15. Writer's Resources

    Common Writing Problems for Non-Native Speakers of English




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    Section 1

    Planning and Producing Documents

    Effective technical documents do not just happen; they are the result of a deliberate and comprehensive design and production process. Although writers may vary some of the steps they use to create a document, effective technical and scientific writing typically follows the same general procedures.

    First, establish basic criteria. Five characteristics--accuracy, clarity, conciseness, coherence, and appropriateness--apply to all effective technical and scientific writing.

    Identify the specific purpose of the document by clarifying both the reasons for its creation and its specific objectives. Often, technical and scientific documents are written as answers to a specific problem, which is articulated in a problem statement. Once you have identified the document's purpose, you should be able to determine the document's general type.

    Technical documents are tools designed to be used by their readers. Accordingly, define your audience--the person or persons who will be reading the document. Then determine your audience's level of expertise and their purpose in using the document. It is also important to assess the attitude of the audience toward both you and the document's subject matter.

    Once you have defined the purpose, the problem and the audience, collect, create, and assemble your information. Sketch out a preliminary outline to organize it. Keeping purpose and audience in mind, sketch out graphics and tables to display your important data.

    Using your outline and preliminary graphics, write a first draft, a rough working version in which you get your ideas on paper. At this point in the process, do not be overly concerned about grammar, style, or usage.

    If possible, put your first draft away for a day or two. Then revise your document in stages, saving stylistic changes for the last stage. Revise for organization; then revise the content for accuracy and appropriateness. Finally, edit your paragraphs and sentences to improve their clarity, conciseness, and coherence, and to fix any problems in grammar, spelling, punctuation, mechanics, or usage.

    The last major step for most technical documents is one or more reviews. You may be too familiar with your document to see such things as gaps in information and inappropriate language. In addition, you may lack certain technical or managerial knowledge necessary for the document to achieve its purpose. For these reasons, writers of technical and scientific documents may ask peers to review their manuscripts for accuracy, clarity, coherence, and appropriateness. In many cases, a technical expert will review the document for technical content. A technical editor may review the document to ensure that it conforms to the organization's style and to correct any remaining problems. There may be legal reviews as well. Finally, a supervisor or a manager may review the document to ensure that it achieves the organization's purpose and is appropriate to the audience.

    Just as most technical documents are reviewed by several persons, many documents are written collaboratively--that is, by several individuals. Collaborative writing often involves additional steps in document planning and management, drafting, and revision.

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    Section 1.1

    Characteristics of Effective Technical Communication

    Learn to recognize and cultivate the qualities of effective technical communication.

    Good technical communication is accurate, clear, concise, coherent, and appropriate. In the prose of science and technology, these qualities are sometimes difficult to achieve. Not only do science and technology depend heavily on specialized concepts and terminologies, but they also make extensive use of numbers and graphics.

    The following example shows how the different qualities of technical prose work together.

    The flow of electrical current can induce the migration of impurities or other defects through the bulk of a solid. This process is called electromigration. In simple electromigration, the force on the defect is thought to have two components. The first component is the force created by direct interaction between the effective charge of the defect and the electric field that drives the current. The second component, called the "wind force," is the force caused by the scattering of electrons at the defect.

    --J.A. Stroscio and D.M. Eigler, "Atomic and Molecular Manipulation with the Scanning Tunneling Microscope," Science

    The preceding example is accurate in two ways. It is stylistically accurate in its precise use of language. It is technically accurate in its use of specialized terms technical terms such as electromigration, charge, electric field, and scattering, whose meanings are based in the context of a technical discipline. Both kinds of accuracy--accuracy of phrasing and accuracy of technical concept--are of first importance in science and technology writing.

    The example is also clear because it is written in simple, direct sentences. Although the technical context is the highly specialized realm of theoretical and applied nanotechnology, the sentence syntax--word order--is restrained and structurally very simple. Part of this clarity is achieved by the rhetorical device of defining a term, electromigration.

    The example is concise in its use of a minimum of words to express the basic idea of electromigration. It is not wordy, and it does not digress from the point being made.

    The example is coherent because it develops its subject matter in an easy-to-follow line of thinking. The sentences are further linked by referents such as "this process," "the first component," and "the second component."

    Finally, the example is appropriate to its purpose of presenting a general description of the process of electromigration, and to its audience, educated readers of Science, who are not necessarily experts in the field of nanotechnology.

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    Section 1.1.1

    Accuracy

    Cultivate accuracy in your writing. Accuracy, which is the careful conforming to truth or fact, has three main aspects:

    1. Document accuracy refers to the proper coverage of your topics in appropriate detail. Often an accurate document needs to focus clearly on a problem. Document accuracy is generally cultivated by a clear problem statement and by a preliminary outline. These writing tools help you focus your writing effort by reducing your data in a way that solves a theoretical or practical problem.

    2. Stylistic accuracy concerns the careful use of language to express meaning. Accurate language requires the careful use of paragraph and sentence structure and word choice to describe and analyze your topics effectively. As a writer, you gain command of accuracy by studying the elements of style and by learning to apply those elements to your drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading. Stylistic accuracy is also a matter of of using words precisely.

    3. Technical accuracy requires stylistic accuracy but is not based solely on it. The effective document in science and technology must be grounded in a technically accurate understanding and representation of the subject. Technical accuracy depends on the writer's conceptual mastery of the subject and its vocabulary, as well as on his or her ability to analyze and shape data with a minimum of distortion. In science and technology, enormous creative energy is given to mastering this technical aspect of subject development.

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    Section 1.1.2

    Clarity

    Strive for clarity in your writing. Clarity, which refers to ease of understanding, is a special problem in science and technology writing. Specialized languages, mathematically detailed analyses, and complex conceptual schemes can make technical subjects hard to grasp even when prepared by skilled writers and read by expert readers. You can increase the clarity of your material in several ways.

    At the level of the whole document, you can promote structural clarity, making it easy for the reader to get the large picture. Use abstracts and other forecasting strategies such as introductions that state the purpose and scope of the document. Tables of contents, problem statements, and even strategic repetition also promote structural clarity. Graphs and tables, effectively designed and placed, help focus and clarify information. Descriptive titles and frequent subject headings guide readers and help keep the large picture in focus.

    Stylistic clarity is promoted by simple, direct language. Simplicity in language is obtained with directly worded sentences. Using simple sentences and avoiding overloaded sentences and excessive nominalization also contribute to clarity. Word choice is a factor in stylistic clarity: use simple language wherever possible to counteract the abstract, highly specialized terms of science and technology.

    Contextual clarity, in which the importance, authorization, and implications of your work are made available, also contributes to ease of understanding. All work has a context, and your readers want to understand what the context of your document is. What prompts you to write? What is your purpose? Whose work precedes or has influenced yours? What is the organizational and intellectual context of your problem? You answer those questions in introductions and problem statements and in your citations and other references.

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    Section 1.1.3

    Conciseness

    Learn the strategies of conciseness. Conciseness has a special value in technical fields. Writers are often tempted to include everything that could be relevant to their subject, rather than merely everything that is relevant to the communication task at hand. The concise document is a piece of writing that conveys only the needed material.

    At the level of the whole document, conciseness is helped most by focus, the narrowing of document scope to a manageable problem and response. Preparing a clear introduction and developing a detailed outline are two strategies that give you control over document length and scope. Identify and eliminate material that is not necessary to support your claims. Look for sections, including appendixes, that are not essential to your work. Graphics are powerful aids to conciseness because they cut down on the amount of prose necessary to describe objects and processes, summarize data, and demonstrate relationships.

    Conciseness requires careful revising. Become familiar with the strategies for reducing wordiness. Look for ways of cutting useless words, sentences, and sections from the document.

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    Section 1.1.4

    Coherence

    Look for ways to improve the coherence of your writing. Coherence is the quality of hanging together, of providing the reader an easily followed path. Writers promote coherence by making their material logically and stylistically consistent, and by organizing and expressing their ideas in specific patterns. Efforts to emphasize the relationships among the elements of a document strengthen its impact. Coherence can dramatically improve the reader's ability to understand your material by promoting its flow or readability. Coherence is especially valued in science and technology because of the inherent complexity of the subjects.

    At the level of the whole document, coherence helps to provide the larger picture, in which the connections among the parts of the document are made clear by the writer. Give readers a road map to help them anticipate the content of your work. Abstracts, clear titles, introductions, and problem statements all promote coherence by linking various parts of a piece of writing.

    The paragraph is one of the most powerful instruments of coherence. By organizing material into a topic sentence and supporting sentences, paragraphs pull together material and emphasize various forms of conceptual development. Paragraph development is achieved partly through the specific strategies of exemplification, analysis, comparison and contrast, definition, enumeration, and description, all of which furnish distinct approaches to developing ideas. Transitional devices also operate at the paragraph level to provide links between sentences and between paragraphs.

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    Section 1.1.5

    Appropriateness

    Make your document appropriate to your goals in writing it, your audience's purpose in reading it, and the specific institutional contexts in which it is written and read.

    Because a reader's knowledge or experience determines the level of comprehension of technical material, appropriateness is largely determined by your audience. For example, a fact expressed in a mathematical equation may not be effective in a report addressed to a managerial audience. See Document Density.

    All technical writing should also be appropriate to the specific institutional context that motivated its creation. It should not only serve the writer's and the reader's purposes but also conform to the goals and conventions of the institution in which it exists. Institutional goals and conventions are sometimes clear and explicit. For example, in large companies, the specific goals of various documents, as well as the preferred form and style, are often described in company correspondence and style manuals.

    Although the context is not always clearly delineated, it always can be worked out. Class work should be done within the context of the goals of the class as well as the specific assignment. Research reports should conform to the general goals and specific conventions of the scientific or technical community in which they are created.

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    Section 1.2

    Document Purpose

    Documents should be created for explicit purposes or goals that both the writer and the reader would readily agree on. Although there are many explicit purposes for creating a scientific or technical document, there are four general categories: to provide information, to give instructions, to persuade the reader, and to enact (or prohibit) something.

    Make the explicit purpose clear at the beginning of your document in an abstract, an executive summary, an introduction, or all of these. Sometimes a formal statement of objective is called for. You may also need to identify the person, the agency, or the contract requiring or authorizing the document or research.

    In addition to explicit goals, however, writers almost always write with unstated but still extremely important implicit goals in mind. Among the most common of these goals are to establish a relationship, to create trust and credibility, and to document actions.

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    Section 1.2.1

    Explicit Purposes

    Most scientific documents have as their principal purpose one or more of the following actions:

    to provide information

    to give instructions

    to persuade the reader

    to enact (or prohibit something)

    Whatever the general purpose of an overall document, certain sections of a document always have a specific purpose. The following table outlines the principal purpose usually associated with common document types and with sections in technical documents.

    Explicit Purpose Document Types Sections in Document
    To provide information Reports, literature reviews, specifications Background, theory, materials, results, graphics and tables, résumé sections
    To give instructions Instructions Procedures, work plan
    To persuade the reader Proposals, recommendation reports, job application letters, résumés Discussion, conclusion, recommendation
    To enact something Acceptance letters, regulations, patents, authorization memoranda

    Examples of Explicit Document Purposes

    To provide information

    This document will discuss the genetic basis of muscular differentiation of the Mediterranean fruit fly.

    To give instructions

    This document outlines a procedure for isolating the mechanisms of muscular differentiation in the Mediterranean fruit fly.

    To persuade the reader

    This document proposes a study of the mechanisms for blocking muscular differentiation in the Mediterranean fruit fly.

    To enact (or prohibit) something

    NOTICE: Mediterranean fruit fly quarantine area: no fruit allowed beyond this point.

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    Section 1.2.2

    Implicit Purposes

    Keep your implicit goals in mind when writing a document. In addition to explicit goals, writers almost always write with other unstated but still extremely important implicit goals. Common goals are to establish a relationship, to create trust and establish credibility, and to document actions.

    To Establish a Relationship

    Communication not only conveys information but also establishes a relationship between speaker and listener, or writer and reader. A well-written letter of inquiry, for example, can begin a professional connection that may last for years. Readers of research reports often initiate long and fruitful correspondences with the authors.

    Even seemingly impersonal documentation and instructions can, if written carefully to addressing a user's need, establish a positive relationship between the user and the producer of the product.

    To Create Trust and Establish Credibility

    An underlying goal of all technical and scientific writing is to get the reader to trust the writer's credibility. Scientific and technical writing is based on precision. Accordingly, any technical or scientific document should justify the reader's confidence in the accuracy of its content, style, and organization.

    Carefully qualify statements that need to be qualified. Do not make claims that are merely suppositions. If your reader begins to doubt your ability or intent to analyze and shape data with a minimum of distortion, the document will no longer be effective.

    To Document Actions

    Scientists, engineers, and managers often use writing to create permanent records of their thoughts and actions. One of the primary differences between most forms of written and spoken communication is that writing can be fairly permanent, whereas speech vanishes as soon as it is produced. Consequently, technical communication is often more effective when it is written down. Make important observations, suggestions, or objections in writing. Similarly, communicate important tasks and deadlines in documents such as project plans. Keeping precise records of experiments and procedures in notebooks is crucial to a project's overall accuracy and to establishing intellectual-property rights.

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    Section 1.2.3

    Statement of Objective

    If appropriate, state your document's objective at the beginning. Readers of technical writing are often busy people; such a statement will alert them that it is important to read further.

    The following opening sentence from a memorandum by an engineer at Morton Thiokol warning his superiors of the problem that later caused the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger provides an example of a good statement of objective.

    This letter is written to ensure that management is fully aware of the seriousness of the current O-Ring erosion problem in the SRM joints from an engineering standpoint.

    --R. M. Boisjoly

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    Section 1.3

    Problem Statement

    If you are focusing on a problem, be sure to define and state it specifically enough that you can write about it. Avoid trying to investigate or write about multiple problems or about broad or overly ambitious problems. Vague problem definition leads to unsuccessful proposals and vague, unmanageable documents. Naming a topic is not the same as defining a problem.

    Weak

    Coda file system. [This definition is too vague; it suggests a broad topic but not an approach to the topic.]

    Improved

    Protecting against temporary link failures in mobile computing: A design for the coda file system.

    Weak

    Engine starting and warm-up behavior.

    Improved

    Effects of fuel enrichment on engine starting and warm-up behavior.

    Problem statements often have three elements:

    1. the problem itself, stated clearly and with enough contextual detail to establish why it is important;

    2. the method of solving the problem, often stated as a claim or a working thesis;

    3. the purpose, statement of objective and scope of the document the writer is preparing.

    These elements should be brief so that the reader does not get lost.

    [problem and its context] A recent trend in the design of new aircraft is the addition of winglets, which are small fins attached to the ends of the main wing. After an aircraft has taken off and is cruising, winglets improve its performance by reducing the drag caused by the main wing. However, during the critical stages of aircraft takeoff and landing, the winglets cause two problems. First, they cause vibrations in the main wing, commonly called buffeting. Second, they cause the aircraft to lose some control of yaw, the motion of the nose right and left. In a study funded by NASA [Ref. 2], the main wing of a DC-10 transport aircraft was outfitted with winglets, and it experienced significant buffeting during takeoff and landing.

    [approach of the current research] In our current project, we examine winglet-induced buffeting in three wing designs. We record buffeting and yaw under experimental wind-tunnel takeoff and landing conditions for (1) a wing without winglets, (2) another wing with conventional winglets, and (3) a wing with spheroid winglets. Our objective is to determine the degree to which differences between load lifts on the wings and their winglets during takeoff and landing are causing the performance problems we have described.

    [purpose and scope of current document] In this study, we develop theoretical models of winglet load lifts and compare these to the lifts of wings and winglets actually recorded during testing conditions.

    --Tan T. Trinh, "Winglets at Takeoffs and Landings"

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    Section 1.4

    Audience

    Write to your audience. People read technical documents for different reasons, and readers have varying levels of technical expertise. To be effective, technical writing must target its audience or audiences.

    Target your audience by identifying your audience type and level of expertise, your audience's purpose in using the document, and your audience's attitude toward both you and the content of your document. These considerations will influence specific features of the document, including organization, introductions, equations and mathematical models, graphics, technical terms, and level of detail.

    These features, especially the level of detail, contribute to the density of the document, the rate at which information is presented to the reader.

    See Document Density for an explanation of how these features vary for different audience types to identify the expertise and purpose of different types of readers.

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    Section 1.4.1

    Audience Types and Level of Expertise

    Determine your audience's needs by assessing their expertise and their purpose in reading the document. Effective technical writing recognizes several types of readers, reflecting different levels of expertise:

    experts

    technicians

    managers

    laypersons

    as well as mixed audiences, composed of one or more of the listed groups.

    Vary your organization, density of information, and emphasis to meet the your audience's purpose in reading the document and their level of expertise. See Document Density.

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    Section 1.4.1.1

    Writing for Experts

    Distinguish between two types of experts: general experts and specific experts. Both kinds are readers with extensive technical knowledge of the document's subject matter.

    Levels of Knowledge

    General experts possess extensive knowledge about a field in general, but they might be unfamiliar with particular technical terms, specific equipment, or recent advances in your document's subject matter. Specific experts, on the other hand, share or surpass your knowledge about a document's subject matter.

    Purposes in Using Document

    Experts read technical and scientific documents for a variety of purposes:

    to maintain and expand their own general expertise

    to obtain specific answers to their own research and writing

    to evaluate a document's technical or scientific content

    Strategies for Writing to Experts

    • If your audience consists solely of specific experts, you may not need to give extensive background or define key technical terms or acronyms.

    • If your audience includes general experts, provide sufficient background information and define any terms that they might be unfamiliar with.

    • Do not just present a concept to an expert. Also explain its parts and processes in detail.

    See Document Density.

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    Section 1.4.1.2

    Writing for Technicians

    Technicians are the people who construct, operate, and fix things. An office worker expert in desktop publishing is a technician, as is the person who repairs your telephone or washing machine.

    Levels of Knowledge

    Technicians are often more expert than anyone else in how a particular thing works or why it doesn't work. They are also usually familiar with the common technical terms associated with the devices they use and the processes they perform. They may not be familiar, however, with general or abstract concepts about a device or a process.

    Purposes in Using Document

    Technicians read technical and scientific documents for a variety of purposes:

    to learn how to perform particular tasks

    to learn how to solve specific problems

    to learn about new devices and procedures relevant to their particular tasks

    to acquire and expand background knowledge helpful to the performance of their tasks

    Strategies for Writing to Technicians

    • Keep introductions and background information brief.

    • Make information accessible:

      • When appropriate, reduce information to instructions on how to perform a procedure or diagnose and fix a problem.

      • Use graphs and tables.

      • Keep sections and overall instructions as short as possible;

      • Index and cross-reference material.

    • Provide short definitions or explanations of any unfamiliar terms, tools, devices, or procedures.

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    Section 1.4.1.3

    Writing for Managers

    Assume that managers are busy people who need to use documents primarily as tools in making decisions. Because managers read and review many documents, be brief and to the point.

    Levels of Knowledge

    Managers vary in their technical knowledge. Many managers, especially in technical organizations, are general experts in a document's subject matter. Rarely, however, are managers specific experts in the content of a document. Managers usually supervise a number of projects, so they may not be familiar with every recent technological advance. And often managers are specialists in fields such as marketing or management and have little detailed technical knowledge.

    Purposes in Using Document

    Managers read technical and scientific documents for a variety of purposes:

    to aid in making decisions

    to assess current situations

    to maintain their general level of expertise

    to evaluate projects and employees

    In general, managers read for the bottom line, a concise summary of the present situation and specific recommendations for action.

    Strategies for Writing to Managers

    • Distill key information into an executive summary.

    • In general, present information in order of importance.

    • Emphasize information that will aid in making decisions.

    • Present sufficient background information in your introduction.

    • Summarize all recommendations for action in your conclusion.

    • Segment information to allow easy reading of parts of the document.

    • If necessary, put long, technical explanations into appendixes.

    • Use graphs to summarize information.

    • Explain any unfamiliar terms.

    See also Document Density.

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    Section 1.4.1.4

    Writing for Laypersons

    A layperson is one who does not possess the technical knowledge of an expert or a technician. Thus, all of us read some documents as laypersons; no one is an expert in all fields.

    Levels of Knowledge

    Do not assume a layperson has a technical background. Unless you know that all members of your audience will understand a technical term or concept, explain it carefully, using examples and analogies with which the reader is familiar.

    Some lay audiences can be classified as novices, persons who do not yet possess technical expertise in a field but are in the process of acquiring it. Technical textbooks at different levels, for example, are written to audiences that are starting out as laypersons but may become experts.

    Purposes in Using Document

    Laypersons read technical and scientific documents for a variety of purposes:

    to expand their general knowledge

    to help make decisions as citizens, consumers, and investors

    to learn how to use a device or perform a procedure

    to become an expert

    Strategies for Writing to Laypersons

    • Present extensive background information in your introduction.

    • Organize information from the familiar to the unfamiliar.

    • Simplify information to the level sufficient for the audience's purpose in using the document.

    • Explain all technical terms.

    • Illustrate and explain technical terms and concepts with analogies (e.g., "Your hard disk is like an attic; if it is too full, you may have trouble retrieving a specific item,") and anecdotes.

    See Document Density.

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    Section 1.4.1.5

    Writing for a Mixed Audience

    Often a document will be read by readers with different levels of expertise. Computer documentation, for instance, may be written for experts who are familiar with all the hardware and software processes involved, technicians who will install and support the application, a manager who may be deciding whether or not to purchase the software, and laypersons who may occasionally use it.

    Strategies for Writing to Mixed Audiences

    See Document Density.

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    Section 1.4.2

    Audience Use of Document

    Readers of technical and scientific writing, whatever their level of expertise, read a document for three general purposes:

    to acquire information

    to help make decisions

    to learn how to do something

    To Acquire Information

    Readers at all levels of expertise read technical documents to acquire information. Experts read current documents in their own fields to maintain their level of expertise and read documents in related fields to increase the breadth of their knowledge. Furthermore, experts or technicians in one field are often novices in another field and read documents to acquire a basic understanding. Sometimes technicians read documents to acquire a basic understanding of general concepts and processes that will help them perform their tasks and diagnose and solve problems they may encounter. Managers read to acquire both the general and the specific information necessary for them to supervise their staffs effectively and to function well in their organizations. Laypersons read scientific and technical documents to acquire general knowledge about a subject or as novices attempting to become experts.

    To Help Make Decisions

    Readers at all levels of expertise read documents to make decisions. An expert may read a technical study to decide whether or not to conduct a specific experiment or to use a new design element. A manager may need to make or approve a decision. Technicians use documents to decide on the selection of specific hardware and software and to determine the best procedure for performing a task. Laypersons may read documents to help select a particular product or investment.

    To Learn How to Do Something

    All readers, whatever their level of expertise, sometimes read instructions to help them perform various tasks. A manager may read a document to learn how to use new budgeting software. An expert may read a document to learn how to use a new device. Instructions are an essential part of a technician's role in performing tasks and making things work. Finally, as laypersons, all of us use instructions to perform everyday tasks, from using an Automated Teller Machine to filling out our income tax forms.

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    Section 1.4.3

    Audience Attitudes Toward Writer and Subject

    As you think about your document's content and organization, consider your audience's attitudes toward both you and the subject matter.

    Attitude Toward You and Your Organization

    If your audience views you as an expert, in some situations you may not need to offer lengthy explanations for your conclusions and recommendations. When we go to a doctor, for example, we do not always ask for a detailed explanation of a diagnosis or procedure. Similarly, a reader of a technical manual written by the manufacturer is likely to accept a statement of the possible causes of a certain type of error without further explanation. Because the reader trusts the accuracy of the manufacturer, no explanation is necessary.

    On the other hand, if the audience does not know you or does not consider you an expert, or if the reader has had past negative experience with you or your organization, the document should include extensive explanations of your conclusions and recommendations to create trust and establish credibility.

    Audience Interest in Subject

    Your audience's interest in your document's content will affect its organization. If your audience is already interested in your subject, you may be able to shorten your introduction. If your audience is not interested in your subject or if you do not know the level of their interest, explain why the material in the document is important to the reader.

    Audience Attitude Toward Subject

    If your audience initially may be hostile to your major conclusions, you may want to present the problem first, then your analysis, then your conclusions or recommendations. On the other hand, if you believe your audience to be receptive to your conclusions (especially if your audience is a manager), begin with conclusions and recommendations.

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    Section 1.4.4

    Document Density

    Document density refers to the amount, type, detail, complexity, and rate of information presented to the reader. The density appropriate to any document is determined by its audience and the ways in which the audience will use it. Matching the density of information to your audience is crucial for the success of any technical document. The following table presents some general guidelines.

    Guidelines for Document Density

    Feature of Document Expert Managerial Layperson
    Introductions Technical Problem/solution Relevance
    Math models OK Avoid Avoid
    Equations OK Keep simple or avoid Avoid
    Graphics Detailed, analytical Simple, presentational General illustrative
    Detail level Accurate, numerical General, accurate Simple, narrative
    Technical terms Expert, technical Administrative General, illustrative
    Emphasis Analysis Operations, costs Informational, interest

    See Examples of Document Density.

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    Section 1.4.4.1

    Examples of Document Density

    The following two passages illustrate differences in the amount, type, detail, complexity, and rate of information appropriate to the two different audiences, one expert and one general. Both passages describe possible adverse side effects of the commonly prescribed allergy drug terfenadine (brand name Seldane).

    The first passage is excerpted from the Physicians' Desk Reference, the standard guide to prescription drugs used by medical doctors in the United States. To ensure their patients' health, doctors have a professional, ethical, and legal obligation to know the specific information contained in this work about any drug they prescribe. The second passage is taken from the The Pill Book, a popular consumer guide for prescription drugs. This document is designed for laypersons with little technical medical knowledge. The laypersons' purpose in using the book is to become more knowledgeable about the specific drugs they may take and to become aware of any potential dangers.

    Warnings

    Terfenadine undergoes extensive metabolism in the liver by a specific cytochrome P-450 isoenzyme. This metabolic pathway may be impaired in patients with hepatic dysfunction (alcoholic cirrhosis, hepatitis) or who are taking drugs such as ketoconazole, itraconazole, or clarithromycin, erythromycin, or troleandomycin (macrolide antibiotics), or other potent inhibitors of this isoenzyme. Interference with this metabolism can lead to elevated terfenadine plasma levels associated with QT prolongation and increased risk of ventricular tachyarrhythmias (such as torsades de pointes, ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation) at the recommended dose. SELDANETM is contraindicated for patients with these conditions (see WARNING BOX, CONTRAINDICATIONS, and PRECAUTIONS: Drug Interactions).

    --Physicians' Desk Reference

    Because the foregoing document is written for experts who will be using the information for what may be life-or-death decisions, the information provided is extensive. The document describes in detail the biological processes that make the drug dangerous to patients with liver problems and lists the two specific liver diseases that should deter doctors from prescribing the drug. Similarly, the passage gives an exhaustive list of all drugs that might cause specific heart problems. Because the document is intended for experts familiar with medical jargon, technical terms such as isoenzyme and ventricular tachycardia are used without any explanation.

    Cautions and Warnings

    In rare cases, terfenadine may cause serious adverse heart rhythms or other cardiac events. It should be taken with care by people with serious liver disease and by those taking erythromycin, ketoconazole, or itraconazole. . . . Dizziness or fainting may be the first sign of a cardiac problem with terfenadine.

    --Harold S. Herman, ed. The Pill Book

    The technical terms of the first passage, such as ventricular tachyarrhythmias, are replaced by more accessible but less precise terminology such as serious adverse heart rhythms. This passage reduces the list of drugs that may interact dangerously with terfenadine to the few drugs that would most likely be taken by readers of the book. Finally, because a principal use of the book is to allow consumers to identify possible dangerous drug reactions, the passage lists for the reader the most common symptoms of ventricular tachyarrhythmias: dizziness or fainting.

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    Section 1.5

    Organization

    Organize your planning and writing. Organization is the arrangement of elements into a structure, a whole.

    • Organization is a work strategy for setting priorities that helps the writer make the best use of his or her time. The process of getting organized requires that you, as a writer, work out a schedule for your research and writing. Work plans and other document-planning aids can be valuable tools for helping you produce work on a reasonable schedule.

    • Organization is a specific approach to document planning. The key instrument of document organization is the outline. Outlines help you work out both the general structure of your document and specific sections and topics.

    • Organization is essential in making your document coherent to your audience. A predictable and logical structure helps readers understand the information presented in your document. Almost all documents, from short memoranda to lengthy reports, consist of some type of introductory material, the body, and concluding material.

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    Section 1.5.1

    Developing a Detailed Outline

    Outlines effectively reduce and order your source materials. An outline will force you to

    partition material

    develop a point of view

    establish the scope of your document

    sequence your topics

    develop a writing strategy

    The same outline can be used to generate feedback, serve as a writing aid, and provide the subject headings of your paper.

    Work out a general plan first, and then make the outline more specific.

    The following is an outline of a research article.

    Title: "Chemical Changes in Ground Water Preceding the Kobe Earthquake"

    General Specific
    Problem Description of quake
    Background Prediction model
    Method Ground water variables, flow rate, radon
    Results Flow rate Before quake

    After quake
    Radon content Before quake

    After quake
    Analysis Comparison with other recent quakes Possible mechanisms of change

    Fissure widening from regional tectonic stress

    Permeability from increased microcracking

    --H. Wakita and U. Tsunogai, "Precursory Chemical Changes in Ground Water, Kobe Earthquake," Science

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    Section 1.5.1.1

    Informal Outline

    In an informal outline, sometimes called a scratch outline, the writer brainstorms to develop a list of topics, which are then put into some order. The following informal outline might serve as the basis of a short theoretical report for a review of the current state of photoelectric conversion chemistry. 

    Title: Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Semiconductor-Based
Photoelectric Cells

Introduction: Converting solar to chemical energy

Absorption of light: Optimizing efficiency

Energetics for photoredox processes

Durability of semiconductor electrodes

Kinetics for fuel-forming redox reactions 

Examples of semiconductor-based photochemical processes

        --Photoelectrolysis of H2O
          (SrTiO3-based cell)

        --Photooxidation of Cl- (MY2)

        --Photoreduction of water to H2

        --Reduction of CO3H- to formate

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    Section 1.5.1.2

    Formal Outline

    In the formal outline, you develop a numbering system to accompany the topics. The process of creating and sequencing the topics is a critical stage in developing your document, because the resulting plan determines the document's internal logic and order. In the following outline, the writer has designed a writing strategy. When the document is reviewed, the outline will help the reviewer understand the writer's goals. 

    Outline:  Tools and Materials for High-Speed Machining: A Survey
    
1    Progress in tool technology is largely speed-based

     1.1 Materials

     1.2 Automation

2    Tool failure mechanisms

     2.1 Fracture

     2.2 Deformation

     2.3 Wear

3    Strategies for developing tooling systems for high-speed
     machining

     3.1 Chemically stable materials

     3.2 Diffusion-limited wear regimes

     3.3 Isolation of the tool from the workplace

4    Conclusions

     4.1 Aluminum alloys

     4.2 Hard steels

     4.3 Titanium alloys

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    Section 1.5.2

    Subject Headings

    See also Forecasting and Outlining.

    Use headings to help guide the reader through the document. Headings help the reader grasp the organization of your document. Be sure your headings are identical with your table of contents. Many word processors can automatically generate a table of contents from your subject headings.

    Weak

    This paper reports the results and interpretation of a detailed experimental investigation of the physical and biological factors affecting gasoline vapor transport from contaminated soils into a building.

    The study was conducted at the site of a former gasoline station located at the Alameda Naval Air Station (ANAS), California (see Figure 1). In 1980, one of three 45-m3 underground storage tanks was damaged. The tank was drained and repaired between 1980 and 1987. Subsequent tests revealed that subsurface leakage continued to be a problem, and in 1990 fuel was removed and . . .

    Improved

    This paper reports the results and interpretation of a detailed experimental investigation of the physical and biological factors affecting gasoline vapor transport from contaminated soils into a building.

    Site Description

    The study was conducted at the site of a former gasoline station located at the Alameda Naval Air Station (ANAS), California (see Figure 1). In 1980, one of three 45-m3 underground storage tanks was damaged. The tank was drained and repaired between 1980 and 1987. Subsequent tests revealed that subsurface leakage continued to be a problem, and in 1990 fuel was removed and . . .

    --M. L. Fischer et al., "Factors Affecting Indoor Air Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds at a Site of Subsurface Gasoline Contamination," Environmental Science and Technology

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    Section 1.6

    Forecasting

    See also Coherence.

    Present the whole before the parts. One of the common problems in reading science and engineering materials is that of trying to understand the context of the discussion. Give your reader a general view of where you are going before you plunge into the details. This principle applies to the introductions of documents, as well as to the openings of document sections.

    Weak

    3.2 Results

    Friction between specimens first induces a moment about the loading hole that can lead to a different stress state at the crack tip. It also delays the Hertzian indentation energy flow from the loading point to the crack tip. The extent of the delay may depend on the contact surface conditions between the specimen and back-up plate, which would contribute to KIa scatter.

     [In this example, the section opening is not linked to what has been said, and it also moves into an account of the results that gives no context.]

    Improved

    3.2 Results of the BLM Program on Crack Arrest Testing

    The results of the BLM Crack Arrest Testing Program show a significant scatter in the KIa values. Friction effects described in the last section may play an important role in producing this larger scatter. The friction between specimens influences two aspects of their behavior. First, it induces a moment about the loading hole that can lead to a different stress state at the crack tip. Second, it delays the Hertzian indentation energy flow from the loading point to the crack tip. The extent of the delay may depend on the contact surface conditions between the specimen and back-up plate, which would contribute to KIa scatter.

     [The forecasting in the improved example is developed in several ways, including descriptive headings, a clear topic sentence, introductory sentences giving context and background, and transitional words.]

    --G. D. Whitman and R. H. Ryan, "Heavy-Section Steel Technology Program: Quarterly Progress Report," Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

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    Section 1.7

    Drafting a Technical Document

    After you have collected your information, identified your document's purposes, objective, and audience, developed an appropriate outline, and, if appropriate, sketched out key graphics and tables, you are ready to begin writing the first draft of your document.

    Many writers find the following suggestions helpful in writing a first draft.

    • Writing can generate new ideas. If you discover potentially relevant new ideas or approaches, include them even if they are not in your outline. You can revise your outline when you edit for organization.

    • The main purpose of a first draft is to sketch out ideas in writing. Consequently, fixing specific problems in sentences, words, grammar, spelling, usage, or mechanics when writing a first draft can be distracting and can hinder the development of important and interesting ideas. Many writers just mark these problems when writing a first draft and then address them when they edit for grammar, style, and usage.

    • You may find yourself needing to locate or develop additional data or to confirm already exisiting data. Marginal notes or comments in the text (e.g., "add median response time," "need figures," or "check maximum values") allow you to keep your ideas flowing.

    • You do not need to write the document in the order of your outline. Many writers, for example, find it useful to write the introduction and the conclusion of a document last.

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    Section 1.8

    Revising Organization

    Revise your document to produce a predictable and logical structure between and within sections. A predictable and logical structure produces overall document coherence, which allows your audience to read the document efficiently and to use its information effectively. Consequently, the first review of any technical document should focus on ensuring a logical and accessible structure.

    Reviewing Organization

    1. If you have not already done so, divide your document into sections and subsections by inserting headings and subheadings into your document.

    2. Read over the headings and subheadings of your document. (If your document has a table of contents, review it.)

    3. Are all the elements of your document type present and in the appropriate order? If not, are there good reasons for omitting or rearranging some sections?

    4. Does each section and subsection follow logically from the preceding one?

    5. Early in the text, is there a clear road map of the entire document? (See Forecasting.) Does the document follow that road map?

    6. Review the graphics in the order presented in your document. Do they present the key information to the reader in a logical order?

    7. Read aloud the topic sentence of each paragraph of your document. Do ideas flow smoothly from paragraph to paragraph? Will the relationship between one idea and the next be clear to your audience?

    Strategies for Revising Organization

    1. If appropriate, add sections, subsections, and section headings, and subheadings to make your document conform to its standard type.

    2. If appropriate, add sections and subsections to improve the logical structure and coherence of your document.

    3. If necessary, revise the forecasting statements to provide the reader with an accurate road map of the ideas that will follow.

    4. If appropriate, add new graphics and revise and rearrange old ones to provide the reader with a visual summary of the document's central ideas.

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    Section 1.9

    Revising Content

    When you are satisfied with the organization of your document, review your document to ensure that all information is accurate, complete, and comprehensible. Check to see that the information is relevant to your document's purpose and to your audience's use. The efficient exchange of information from writer to reader is one of the main objectives of all technical writing.

    Because revising content may significantly alter parts of a document, experienced writers review and revise the content thoroughly before they begin to edit for style, usage, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

    Questions About Content

    Read through your draft slowly, stopping at the end of each section, and ask yourself the following questions:
    1. Is the information accurate?

      1. Are there any incorrect data entries?

      2. Are all outside sources documented? Is all information from outside sources either paraphrased or quoted exactly and enclosed in quotation marks?

      3. Are any graphics misleading?

      4. Add up all tables in both the horizontal and the vertical directions to make sure the numbers balance. Similarly, add up all percentages in graphics and tables to check, if appropriate, that they add up to 100 percent.

    2. Is the information complete? Have you omitted any facts, concepts, equations or processes necessary for the document's aim and for the audience type and the audience's purpose?

      1. Is all quantitative information presented fully?

      2. Are all concepts explained in the detail appropriate for the document's aim and for the audience type and the audience's purpose?

      3. Are there any steps missing from instructions, procedures, or descriptions of processes?

    3. Is any irrelevant information included in the document?

    4. Is the information comprehensible to your audience?

      1. Are all technical terms that need to be defined for your audience clearly defined?

      2. Are all technical terms used correctly?

      3. Are all technical terms used consistently?

      4. Do you always use the same term to refer to something?

      5. Are all acronyms explained when first used?

      6. Is the density of information appropriate to the expertise and purpose of your audience?

    Strategies for Revising Content

    1. Correct any inaccurate quantitative data or other information.

    2. Add further information, explanations of concepts and processes, and instructions necessary for your document's aim and audience.

    3. Delete from the body of the document any information that is unessential and unimportant to most of your readers. If the information will be important to some of your readers, include it in one or more appendixes.

    4. Clarify technical terms.

      1. Replace any term that is used incorrectly.

      2. Replace any vague terms.

      3. If a single term is used to refer to two or more separate items, replace the term with separate terms for each item.

      4. If two or more terms are used to refer to a single item, choose the best term and replace all occurrences of the other terms with the one you have selected.

      5. The first time you use an acronym or an abbreviation that may not be familiar to all your readers, write out the complete term followed by the acronym or abbreviation in parentheses.

      6. Consider adding a glossary if you use many terms with which some readers may not be familiar.

    5. Separate important technical terms and concepts so that your audience may easily digest the material.

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    Section 1.10

    Editing for Grammar and Style

    When you have dealt with the more basic matters included in the revision stage, it is time to review the document carefully for correctness. As you edit your document, however, continue to do whatever you can to improve accuracy, clarity, conciseness, coherence, and appropriateness. For example, could any sentences be made more effective by restructuring?

    No matter how sound your document may be technically, your credibility will be undermined by errors in sentence construction or grammar, word choice, usage, punctuation, mechanics, or spelling. If you need more information about grammatical elements, refer to parts of sentences and parts of speech. If English is not your native language, check the list of common ESL writing problems.

    Finally, have you used the language of your sources appropriately and give them proper credit? If your document is supposed to follow an established style for citing sources and creating a reference list, have you followed the right style correctly and consistently?

    When you come to sentences that are hard to follow, locate the main agent (thing doing something) and the action (thing being done):

    1. Circle the main subject or agent of the sentence. This noun will identify the who or what of the sentence.

    2. Circle the main action word. This verb is the key to the action (thing being done or state of being) of the sentence.

    3. Whenever possible, organize the sentence around the subject and verb. Make the agent the subject and the action the main verb of the sentence.

      4. Weak

      The solid was contaminated [main action] as a result of a leaking cleaning solution [main agent].

      Improved

      A leaking cleaning solution contaminated the solid.

    Here are some ways to tighten up your prose:

    1. Make your paragraphs coherent. If necessary, rearrange sentences for better paragraph flow and logic.

    2. Use the active voice whenever the passive voice is not clearly more appropriate.

    3. Eliminate unnecessary words and phrases.

    4. Simplify your sentences. Break long sentences into manageable units.

    5. Condense repetitious or closely related material. Look for ways to combine or delete words and sentences that repeat information.

    6. Be specific. Replace vague phrases and words with more descriptive ones.

    7. Use words accurately. Look for phrases and words that don't stand up to scrutiny.

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    Section 1.11

    Reviewing a Document

    After they are written, revised, and edited, almost all technical documents undergo one or more reviews. Common types of reviews are peer reviews by colleagues, technical reviews by experts, editorial reviews by colleagues or editors, and managerial reviews by supervisors.

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    Section 1.11.1

    Peer Review

    After you have revised and edited your document, ask a colleague to read it over and review it. Peer review is often the first and sometimes the most useful step in the review process. Because colleagues are often closer to the project than other types of reviewers, they can often identify weaknesses in content and organization that other reviewers may miss. In addition, peer reviews are often less formal and less threatening than managerial or technical reviews.

    Peer reviews of documents are a frequent and normal activity in most scientific and technical organizations, with most engineers and scientists alternating between the role of the individual requesting a review and that of the individual performing it.

    Peer reviews are most useful when specific guidelines are followed in requesting the review and the reviewer follows some important strategies in performing it.

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    Section 1.11.1.1

    Requesting a Peer Review

    Observe the following guidelines in asking a colleague to review your document.

    1. Provide your reader with sufficient information on your motivation and goals, both explicit and implicit, in writing the document; the document's intended audience or audiences; and relevant background not included in the document.

    2. Ask the reviewer to perform specific tasks or answer specific questions regarding content, organization, and appropriateness. Ask the reviewer questions similar to the ones given in Revising for Content and Revising for Organization. Do not ask overly general questions such as "Is the report understandable?" Instead, ask, "Are any terms used that some readers may not understand?"

    3. Select tasks and questions appropriate to the reviewer's abilities and position. In most cases, do not ask colleagues to mark mechanical problems such as spelling unless they happen to notice them in passing.

    Example of a Request for a Peer Review

    Please review the following report. The report was requested by the marketing division to distribute to their sales force because several customers have expressed concern about the incongruities between the file structures of our operating system and the file structure of the World Wide Web. The purpose of the document is to give our sales and support persons several solutions to the problem that they can pass on to our customers. Please answer a few specific questions:

    1. Have I explained the problem clearly enough on page 2 for our sales and support persons?

    2. Will our sales and support persons be able to understand my descriptions of possible solutions well enough so that they can then explain them to our customers?

    3. Can you think of any additional negative effects that might be produced by solutions 2 or 3?

    4. I evaluate the positive and negative aspects of each solution after I present it. Would it be more effective to present all four solutions and then evaluate them together?

    Of course, feel free to add any comments you have on ways to improve the report. Thanks for taking time to review it.

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    Section 1.11.1.2

    Performing a Peer Review

    Observe the following general strategies in reviewing a colleague's document.

    1. Start by praising what the document does well.

    2. Spend much of your time responding to the author's specific requests.

    3. Avoid performing an editorial review, unless asked to by the author. Do not focus on spelling and mechanics. Instead, focus on helping the author revise organization and content.

    4. Do not just criticize. Make suggestions on how to solve the problems you notice in the document.

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    Section 1.11.2

    Technical Review

    The technical accuracy of a piece of writing should be the first level of review, since it is a waste of time to work on a document that is wrong in content. Technical reviews are most often conducted by routing a document among one's peers. A technical review may also be conducted by technical referees who are experts in the relevant field. Generally, the technical review is concerned with one or more of the following questions:

    • Is the problem addressed one that is technically important?

    • Does the document solve the problem it sets out to solve?

    • Are the methodology and general practice technically sound?

    • Does the research lead to other important questions?

    Although technical reviews are strictly matters of expertise and should not be confused with editorial reviews, technical and editorial issues are not always easy to separate, for the following reasons:

    • Sometimes technical inaccuracy is caused by stylistic cloudiness.

    • Small terminological errors can introduce monumental technical errors. If, for example, the approach of an aircraft is monitored in nautical miles, and the cockpit operating procedure of an airline pilot is given in statutory miles . . .

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    Section 1.11.3

    Editorial Review

    Editorial reviews aim to improve the readability of a manuscript. The reader examines the manuscript for ways in which it can be clarified and simplified. Then the reviewer either makes the changes and returns the marked-up manuscript to the writer or makes marginal notes and a written report for the writer's use in revising. The review often proceeds as follows:

    1. Read the draft for content: coverage and organization. Read the draft all the way through before you start to make suggestions for adding or rearranging material, reordering paragraphs, or recasting sentences. Get a firm grasp of the author's purpose, problem statement, audience, and organization.

    2. Make marginal notes. If you have to slow down in your reading or have to reread a section, mark it for revision. Make marginal notes of sections that are vague, awkward, inconsistent, or poorly supported. Note any grammatical or stylistic problems as you read along.

    3. Place potential problems in context. Reread each area you marked in the first reading. Place the problem in the context of the audience, the reader's purpose, and the rules of grammar and style.

    4. Write down your recommendations. Make written suggestions in the margins or on a separate sheet of paper. Identify

    overall document organization

    format inconsistencies

    paragraph structure

  • grammatical errors

  • stylistic weakness

  • Read for punctuation and mechanics. Note patterns of misused punctuation, mechanics, and spelling, as well as any misuse of units, acronyms, citations, or numbering of pages, sections, graphics, or equations.

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    Section 1.11.4

    Managerial Review

    Reviewing can also be viewed as a way organizations manage work. In reviewing documents, the supervisor or the manager works with staff, often helping to reshape materials to fit group objectives. Team managers and research directors often establish report, proposal, or oral presentation schedules as a way of getting closure on projects. Time overruns are costly and potentially damaging.

    The review process is often stressful, since staff and management perspectives are predictably different. The concerns of management may not be precisely aligned with those of the staff. That is, management is focused on long-term issues, which include administrative issues of cost, staffing, and work production. The staff, on the other hand, is often focused on the short-term issues of the project. Although the resulting tensions can lead to conflicts, they can also be helpful in getting individuals to focus their written work on organizational goals. The following list highlights some typical conflicts during the review process.

    Writer's Perspective Supervisor's Perspective
    1. I want to show what I've been doing. 1. This document needs to advance the organization's objectives.
    2. He won't tell me what he wants. 2. He throws rough drafts at me.
    3. I don't understand her criticisms. 3. It takes three or four reviews.
    4. He tries to put it in his style. 4. I have to fix a lot of bad prose.
    5. I spend too much time writing. 5. She doesn't spend enough time writing.

    --J. Paradis, D. Dobrin, R. Miller, "Writing at Exxon ITD"

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    Section 1.12

    Collaborative Writing

    A significant portion of technical writing is done not by individuals but by various types of groups. Collaborative writing, like most group activities, has both benefits and pitfalls. A group can possess a wide range of skills impossible to find in a single individual. In addition, a group can become greater than the sum of its parts; interaction among members of a writing group often stimulates creativity and scientific insight.

    Collaborative writing, however, also has its dangers. In any group activity, there are problems of scheduling, communication, and conflicts. To write effectively, collaborative writers may need to incorporate the following steps into the process of writing their document.

    1. List all research and writing tasks necessary for completing the project.

    2. Determine which tasks depend on the completion of other tasks.

    3. Establish a realistic schedule for completing the document.

    4. Assign tasks to individual members of the group.

    5. Develop a style guide for distribution to ensure a consistent format and style.

    6. Determine procedures and responsibilities for the document's production and final electronic form.

    7. Assign someone to manage the document's production.

    8. Establish procedures for reviewing each other's sections as they are written.

    9. Assign someone to be responsible for consistency and accuracy in style.

    10. Assign someone to be responsible for technical accuracy.

    11. Develop procedures for resolving possible conflicts.

    These procedures are often incorporated in a document plan.

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    Section 1.13

    Legal and Ethical Issues

    Research in science and engineering, as in most professions, sometimes poses unexpected legal and ethical problems. These problems will often become apparent at the writing stage of a project. When written claims are made, the concreteness and technical quality of many statements can mask limitations and inconsistencies, thus posing potential legal and ethical problems. Here are some things to keep in mind:

    1. Be aware of the differential of expertise. The expert uses his or her specialized knowledge to solve a problem. Hence, the expert assumes an authority and uses a language that the layperson is usually not able to judge. Some sources of liability include a failure to

      2. point out alternatives

      note negative secondary effects

      give the whole picture

      acknowledge gaps in logic

      cite or credit sources

    2. Be specific about deliverables. If you aren't specific about what you are going to deliver, you can easily find yourself in a contested situation. Generally, you need a specific written agreement about what will be accomplished in your work. This is important for anyone, from the student writing his or her thesis proposal to the research proposal writer or the professional consultant.

    3. Keep clear and well-organized records. Although most people sometimes find themselves reduced by circumstances to back-of-the-napkin notes and records, that practice can lead to compromising and damaging consequences. Written records and communication are widely accepted means of establishing accountability. The written record is often scrutinized in court to study the fairness and thoroughness of a work record. Ethical questions, not to mention legal actions, arise continually over the fulfillment of contracts according to agreed-upon standards of work. The written record is often the only means you will have of demonstrating that an appropriate quantity and quality of work was completed.

    4. Be aware of potential sources of plagiarism. Be sure you understand what plagiarism is. It is the copying, whether deliberate or unintentional, of ideas or portions of text without citing the sources for credit. It is also the use of other people's ideas without attributing them to the proper source. Although plagiarism is often unintentional, it still demonstrates incompetence. If you fail to record your sources and then later forget that you used a source, you are still liable and open to the charge of theft of intellectual property.

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    Section 1.14

    Document Design

    Use document design to help readers locate information and understand the structure and meaning of your material. The design of a document has both an informational and a physical aspect--format and layout. Format refers to the arrangement of the document's content into standard subject areas such as introduction, theory, method and results, discussion, and conclusions sections. Format also refers to the general design of standard document elements such as tables and figures, as well as citations (parenthetical references, footnotes and bibliographies). Format conventions are usually widely followed but may vary from field to field.

    Layout concerns the physical appearance and form of the document page and the document as a whole. Page layout exploits a variety of tools that include the use of headings, numbering systems, bullet and enumerated lists, white space, columns, margins, fonts, indentation, and justification. A document also has a total physical design. Covers, paper size and quality, colors, and two-sided printing may all be important considerations if you are producing a finished document rather than a manuscript.

    Document format should be part of the initial consideration at the outline stage of a document. Page and document layout become increasingly important as your document nears its final form. But consider layout at the start for documents with complex layouts such as computer manuals and commercial documents.

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    Section 1.14.1

    Format

    Use standard document formats to help organize your material into widely accepted arrangements. Most work-related documents have evolved standardized formats for the arrangement of material. Reports, for example, typically begin with the title page, which is followed by the abstract, the table of contents, and so on. Formats help reduce material into predictable patterns for readers. Formats also call out logical arrangements appropriate to given kinds of methods, data, and subjects. These conventions save time in at least two ways: they provide writers an organizing and data-reduction tool, and they help readers anticipate how the document's subject matter is arranged.

    Some documents that have widely recognized format conventions are:

    memoranda

    research reports

    technical articles

    trip reports

    design reports

    letters

    proposals

    instructions

    Many document elements also follow standard formats; some of these elements are:

    graphs and figures

    tables

    citations (bibliography, footnotes, parenthetical references)

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    Section 1.14.2

    Layout

    Use layout to give emphasis and clarity to your document. You can emphasize content by manipulating the physical appearance and arrangement of the document page. Effective layout reduces the density of technical material by simplifying the material, highlighting key points of its content, and giving an attractive look and consistency to the whole. Good page layout helps readers find the message easily and understand its importance in the total scheme of things.

    The following approaches are frequently used together.

    1. Subject headings and subheadings give the reader labels that identify the contents of a given section of text. They are highly effective tools for clarifying and emphasizing material and should be used extensively.

    2. Headers and footers appear at the top or the bottom of a page and provide a running identification of the topic of the page. Most word processing programs allow you to expand a page number header or footer using such materials as your name or a topic. Avoid putting in lengthy headers or footers. See Example of Page Layout.

    3. Lists (chunking). The arrangement of material into lists or topical chunks of text is another very effective means of organizing, simplifying, and highlighting material. Bulleted or enumerated lists not only help readers find materials but also convey logical information about the coordinate and hierarchical importance of the material. See Example of Page Layout and Enumeration.

    4. White space. Another feature that simplifies the page is the white (empty) space, which can be used to isolate and thus highlight text. The top, bottom, and side margins of a document should be ample, normally at least an inch. Indenting paragraphs and double-indenting blocks of text effectively set off and thus emphasize material. Using extra spacing between the lines of text may also reduce the density of the text. See Example of Page Layout.

    5. Typography. Use fonts and typefaces to give emphasis to material. Capital letters, italics, boldface, underlining, and font size may all be used to highlight certain kinds of material. See Example of Page Layout.

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    Section 1.14.2.1

    Example of Page Layout

    [Image: Example of Page Layout]

    --V. Pletser, "Aircraft Parabolic Flights," European Space Agency Bulletin

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    Section 1.15

    Document Checklist

    1. Coverage and Organization

  • Expression

  • Mechanics

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    Section 2

    Document Types

    After identifying a document's purpose, determine the appropriate document type.

    An easily recognizeable document type and format increases a document's overall coherence and the audience's ability to use it efficiently. Consequently, most technical documents conform to fairly standard document types that present information in standard formats.

    Almost all technical documents conform to one the following standard document types:

    Memoranda

    Agendas

    Meeting documents

    Literature reviews

    Reports

    Letters

    Proposals

    Press releases

    Specifications

    Documentation

    Instructions and procedures

    Style guides

    Theses

    Oral Presentations

    Résumés

    Notebooks

    Or to electronic document types such as:

    Electronic mail

    Web sites

    Hypertext

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    Section 2.1

    Memoranda

    Memoranda are brief, informal reports used to establish a record. They generalize the communication process by transmitting the message from one or more authors to one or more recipients. E-mail messages typically take the form of memoranda.

    The memorandum is among the most versatile of organizational documents. From brief research reports and progress reports to trip reports and thumbnail proposals, the memo form is widely used to communicate technical and administrative information. Memoranda are written for numerous internal purposes--for example, to request information, to make announcements, to outline policies, and to transmit meeting minutes. Thus, in most organizations, memos play a crucial role in establishing a record of decisions, requests, responsibilities, results, and concerns.

    The Memo Heading

    The distinctive element of the memorandum is its heading, which is used to frame the message in a very accessible and transparent manner.

    [Image: Memorandum Heading Example]

    This information sets out the context of the message and should be detailed enough to make the context very clear.

    The Memo Body

    Generally, organize the topics of the memorandum in order of importance, with the key statements first and the details further on. The memorandum should normally begin with a brief summary statement, in one or two sentences, identifying the key topic and the scope of the memorandum.

    Memorandum Example, page 1

    Memorandum Example, page 2

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    Section 2.2

    Meeting Documents

    Use meeting documents as tools to encourage productive and efficient meetings.

    The two principal meeting documents are the agenda, which tells participants what topics will be discussed at the meeting, and minutes, which record what actually occurred.

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    Section 2.2.1

    Agenda

    An agenda is a simple list of topics to be discussed (in order of listing), along with the names of individuals who have agreed to lead discussion of those topics. An agenda helps focus a meeting on a core of topics and allows you to control the pace and flow of a meeting and identify important items to be acted upon. Meetings without published agendas generally seem unfocused and unproductive.

    Prepare and circulate an agenda of items to be discussed for each meeting. Circulation of an agenda before a meeting will allow your audience to consider their responses to items listed and will help stimulate discussion. Agendas may be circulated by e-mail or hard copy. The advantage of hard-copy agendas is that they may be brought to a meeting to facilitate the taking of notes during discussion. Experienced meeting leaders recognize that both hard-copies and electronic copies of agenda are usually misplaced, so they bring enough copies for everyone present at the meeting.

    Here is an example of an agenda.

    Development Team Agenda
    1. Report by B. Perez on investigation of possible security software
    2. Report by S. Chan and P. Stanley on development of database prototypes
    3. Discussion of possible hardware platforms
    4. Review of deadlines for project
    5. Agenda for next meeting

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    Section 2.2.2

    Minutes

    Keep accurate minutes of meetings, both formal and informal. Minutes are an essential part of organization life. They maintain an institutional memory of all actions taken or proposed and the key points of discussion. They also inform appropriate individuals who were not present at the meeting of the key action and discussion items.

    Minutes can be formal or informal. Formal minutes are often required by federal, state, or local law, by-laws, charters, or regulations. They are usually distributed to the members of the group before the next meeting, and then approved (sometimes after being amended).

    Some minutes are legally parts of the public record and available to anyone. Often, however, organizational minutes are private and confidential documents, which should be distributed only to appropriate individuals. If the minutes are confidential, each page should be stamped with a message such as "CONFIDENTIAL--DO NOT DISTRIBUTE."

    The following information, adapted from Robert's Rules of Order, is usally included in formal minutes:

    • The name of the group that is meeting and what kind of meeting it is (for example, a general meeting, an emergency meeting, or a meeting devoted to a single issue)

    • Precisely where and when the meeting is being held

    • Names of the group members in attendance and members absent; names of all other individuals present, except for public meetings with an audience

    • The name of the person who called the meeting to order and at what time

    • A report of whether or not the previous meeting's minutes were read and, if they were read, whether or not they were approved (or approved with modifications)

    • Summaries of any reports presented to the group and any action taken on them (acceptance, approval, endorsement, referral)

    • A summary of the discussion of each item on the agenda and any other important issues discussed at the meeting

    • A record of all formal motions, including the name of the individual making the motion

    • A record of the vote on all motions, including the number of votes for and against, and the number of abstentions

    • The time that the meeting was formally concluded

    Informal minutes also include the date of the meeting and the names of all members attending or absent, but they focus more on summarizing key points of discussion and listing all action items to be performed by individuals or the group.

    MEMORANDUM

    TO: Copyright Issues Group
    FROM: Paula Stanley
    DATE: July 9, 1996
    SUBJECT: Copyright Committee, Greenhill College
    Minutes of Regular Meeting, July 9, 1996

    Members Present: Ms. Appelbaum, Dr. Blackburn, Dean Chan, Professor Garcia, Professor Greenberg, Professor Kozowski, Mr. Smith, Professor Snow, Ms. Stanley, Dr. Washington

    Members Absent: Professor Keynes

    Guest: Professor Arnold Alexander, Chair of the Faculty Senate

    Dr. Blackburn called the meeting to order in the Library Conference Room at 1:15 p.m.

    The minutes of the 14 June 1996 meeting were approved unanimously without comment or amendment.

    Professor Greenberg and Ms. Stanley summarized the report of the legal review subcommittee (included with the meeting agenda) that Greenhill College owns any intellectual property developed by a faculty member in his or her major field except for textbooks, which are specifically excluded in the College's Policies and Procedures. The subcommittee report recommended that Greenhill College should also waive ownership interest in 1) artistic works that are not accomplished under a program of research and do not use Greenhill College facilities, and 2) intellectual property developed pursuant to a preexisting consulting agreement where there are no sponsored research obligations and there is little or no use of Greenhill College facilities.

    Professor Snow moved to accept and endorse the subcommittee's report. With no discussion, the motion was passed with seven members voting yes, two members voting no, and one member abstaining.

    The Committee then reviewed the "close-to-final" draft of the new Intellectual Policy Guidelines. Dean Chan moved to amend the Guidelines to add a statement that Greenhill College will retain a "shop right" in all intellectual property developed at Greenhill College, including journal articles and textbooks.

    Dr. Washington expressed concern that such shop rights might encourage circulation of pirated copies of copyrighted works. There was then considerable discussion on possible protections that might be placed on journal articles and textbooks to ensure that copies made pursuant to Greenhill College's retained shop right do not proliferate outside Greenhill College.

    Ms. Stanley suggested including notices or markers on both the electronic and printed forms of the articles and placing electronically distributed copies on a protected server. Dean Chan suggested that the acknowledgment that Greenhill College has a responsibility to make such efforts at protecting the material should be placed in a statement accompanying the Greenhill College reservation of shop rights.

    With such protection built in, the Committee agreed that Greenhill College's shop rights should apply to the published version of a work. Julio Garcia felt that publishers might want to negotiate this. He volunteered to revise the motion to reflect the Committee's discussion and then to send it to the Copyright Committee of the AAP for their comments.

    Professor Alexander felt that the "shop right" wouldn't be much of a problem for faculty but the change in the ownership policy might be, especially if it were perceived as a "give-back" by the faculty. He suggested we poll other colleges and universities to find out what their policies are. Alexander also suggested that the Faculty Policy Committee should also review the revised "shop right" provision before the Committee votes on the final guidelines at its next meeting on 5 August 1996.

    The meeting adjourned at 3:30 p.m.

    Next Meeting: August 5, 1996

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    Section 2.3

    Literature Reviews

    Summarize existing printed or electronic information on a specific subject in a literature review. A literature review may be a self-contained document, or it may be a section of a larger report.

    Determine the amount, scope and density of information to be included in your review by assessing your audience's purpose and their level of expertise.

    Because literature reviews inform colleagues and managers of current information on a subject, they prevent needless duplication of work and provide crucial information for current projects. Literature reviews can, for example, inform colleagues of all current procedures for synthesizing a compound or for caching World Wide Web pages. Literature reviews also can inform both managers and team members about the costs, trade-offs, and efficacy of existing solutions to a particular technical problem.

    Begin your literature review with an introduction that gives reader the context and scope of your specific topic. Make the review as concise as possible and eliminate any unessential material. End a self-contained literature review with a conclusion that summarizes the information that is most important to the reader.

    Cite all references in the appropriate format, and include all sources in a bibliography or works-cited section at the end of the document.

    Organize a literature review either chronologically or by dividing the topic into subtopics and then presenting the subtopics in order of importance, starting with most important subdivision.

    Example of a Literature Review

    The following literature review presents the first part of a fairly extensive report on the history, chemical syntheses, and uses of the chemical compound cantharidin. Notice how the forecasting statement that opens the introduction provides the reader with an effective road map of the entire paper. Each reference is clearly mentioned in the text, and all the references adhere to the same style of sequence-citation.

    CANTHARIDIN: A Historical Overview and Synthetic Approach


    April 11, 1994


    By: Paulus W. Wanandi

    Class of 1995


    TABLE OF CONTENTS

    I. Introduction 1
    II. Origin, Toxicity, and Uses 2
    III. Historical Background 4
    IV. Synthesis 7
    V. Further Work 13
    VI. Conclusion 18
    VII. References 19
    VIII. Appendix 21

    I. Introduction

    Cantharidin (I) is the active ingredient of cantharides, a toxic preparation isolated from the dried bodies of blister beetles (Lytta vesicatoria or Cantharis vesicatoria), which, besides its notoriety as the reputed aphrodisiac in "Spanish fly," has found commercial applications as a potent vesicant (blister-causing agent), counterirritant, and in the removal of benign epithelial growths such as common warts.

    Chemical Formula for Cantharidin

    I

    Since its initial isolation in crystalline form by the French pharmacist Robiquet in 1810,1 cantharidin has been subject to extensive structural and synthetic investigations, owing to its relatively simple structure and extraordinary physiological properties. The seemingly-obvious synthesis of this molecule via a concerted [4+2] Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction between furan and dimethylmaleic anhydride, followed by hydrogenation, was investigated as early as the 1920s,2,3 but such a direct synthetic approach failed. Although some early attempts at the stereospecific syntheses of 1 had been successful,4-6 the length and complexity of these efforts stand in sharp contrast to the uncomplicated structure of I. It is only recently that a short and efficient total synthesis of I was achieved by a Diels-Alder reaction, carried out under high pressure between furan and a dihydrothrophene anhydride, a cyclic sulfide derivative of dimethylmaleic anhydride.7

    . . .

    This report will examine the historical background of cantharidin and its recent synthesis. The biological origin (including biosynthesis), toxicity, and practical uses of the compound will be briefly mentioned. Then, the historical background of the compound, particularly the early investigations that led to the determination of the correct structure and the early attempts--successful or otherwise--at its synthesis, will be described. Finally, the most recent synthesis of cantharidin will be described in detail, including the problems associated with it, its preparative scale, the advantages it has over previous syntheses, and the current efforts being made for its improvement. A new synthesis of the compound will also be suggested.

    II. Origin, Toxcity, and Uses

    Cantharidin (1) is naturally found in various species of blister beetles (family Meloidae), the most familiar of which is the "spanish fly" Lytta vesicatoria (or Cantharis vesicatoria). Used as a defensive substance in these beetles, cantharidin is biosynthesized in the adult male beetles during mating and is completely transferred into the females (which do not produce cantharidin on their own) through the sex organs.14 It was also found that the male beetles continue to produce cantharidin after mating, an evidence which suggests that the biosynthesis of cantharidin in the male beetles is stimulated during copulation and occurs in the accessory glands of the male sexual organs.14 Labelling studies using radioactive isotopes of carbon (14C) and hydrogen (3H), and nonradioactive oxygen (18O), with mass spectrometry have indicated that the biosynthesis proceeds by an unprecedented degradation of farnesol (II),15

    . . .

    Commercially, cantharidin is available as CANTHARONE®, a cantharidin (0.7%) collodion used for the removal of benign epithelial growths such as warts and molluseum contagiosum.19 The apparently original characteristics of cantharidin-induced inflammation (absence of involvement from immunological processes) may also make it useful for the testing of anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic drugs.20 The reputation of cantharidin as an aphrodisiac upon ingestion is widely accepted due to the resulting irritation of the urethra (male genital duct), which may result in priapism (persistent erection of the penis).18 However, as already mentioned above, its ingestion is dangerous, sometimes lethal.21

    . . .

    VII. References

    (1) Robique. M. Ann. Chim. 1810, 76, 302-307.
    (2) von Bruchhausen, F.; Bersch, II. W. Arch. Pharm. Ber. Disch. Phurm. Ges. 1928, 266, 697-702.
    (3) Diels. O.; Alder, K. Ber. 1929, 62, 554-562.
    (4) Ziegler, L.; Schenck, G.; Krockow, E. W.; Siebert, A.; Wenz, A.; Weber, H. Justus Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1942. 551, 1-79.
    (5) Stork, G.; van Tamelen, E. E.; Friedman, L. I.; Burgstahler, A. W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1953, 75, 384-392.
    (6) Schenck, G.; Wirtz, R. Naturwissenshaften 1953, 40, 531.
    (7) Dauben, W. G.; Kessel, C. R.; Takemura, K. H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 6893-6894.
    (8) Dauben, W. G.; Krabbenhoft, II. O. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1976, 98, 1992-1993.
    (9) Gladysz, J. A. CHEMTECH 1979, 372-377.
    (10) Jurezak, J.; Kozluk, T.; Filipek, S.; Eugster, C. H. Helv. Chim. Acta 1982, 65, 1021-1024.
    (11) McCormick, J. P.; Shimmyozu, T. J. Org. Chem. 1982, 47, 4011- 4012.
    (12) Matsumoto, K.; Hashimoto, S.; Ikemi, Y.; Otani, S.; Uchida, T. Heterocycles, 1986, 24, 1835-1839.
    (13) Grieco, P. A.; Nunes, J. J.; Gaul, M. D. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 4595-4596.
    (14) Sierra, J. R.; Woggon, W. D.; Schmid, H. Experientia 1976, 32, 142-144.
    (15) McCormick, J. P.; Carrel, J. E.; Doom, J. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1986, 108, 8071-8074.
    (16) Peter, M. G.; Woggon, W. -D.; Schmid, H. Helv Chim. Acta 1977, 60, 2756-2762.
    (17) Graziano, M. J.; Casida, J. E.; Waterhouse, A. L. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 1987, 149, 79-85.
    (18) Waddell, T. G.; Jones, H.; Keith, A. L. J. Chem. Educ. 1980, 57, 341-342.
    (19) Physicians' Desk Reference to Pharmaceutical Specialties and Biologicals; Medical Economics, Inc.: New Jersey, 1970; p 1727.

    . . .
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    Section 2.4

    Reports

    Reports are standard documents in all organizations. A report is a stand-alone document that relays the results of a factual inquiry to other parties who have a professional interest in the results, expert opinions, laboratory tests, policy issues, trips, and administrative details--anything of importance to the professional organization. Because a report typically circulates as an independent document, it will typically follow a standard format that begins with a front matter section that orients the reader to the main purpose and content of the report. This section is followed by a report body, which contains the factual content of the report, and the body is followed by a section of end matter, which contains various references and secondary material.

    Reports may be internal or external, informal or formal. The informal report circulates within the local environment and is generally not written about externally funded research. The material of an internal report often takes the form of a memorandum, which is a stripped-down version of the internal report, using a standard header. Informal reports are often short and concern administrative and policy issues or perform the function of keeping others informed about your work. Formal reports are generally tightly structured and extensively reviewed before they are released. Report structure may vary according to the intended audience. For example, the same material may be organized for peer specialists or for a managerial audience.

    See the following sections for discussions and examples of reports:

    Laboratory reports

    Research reports

    Research articles

    Design and feasibility reports

    Progress reports

    Consulting reports

    Trip reports

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    Section 2.4.1

    Laboratory Reports

    In the following example, a laboratory report is presented in the form of a brief memorandum.

    MEMORANDUM
    To: B. Renner, Manager, Boiler Group
    From: D. Hein, Analytical Group
    Date: 2/19/93
    Subject: Analysis of VCGx-Boiler Cleaning Solution

    Objective

    The following sample was received for analysis of its sulfate, nitrate, fluoride, and magnesium content:

    Lab Number G1457

    Collected 11/06/92

    Received: 11/14/92

    Analyzed: 2/05/93

    Results

    The following amounts of the substances were found in the sample:

    Lab No. Sample I.D. Parameter Results as ppm
    G1457 VCGx SO4 90,000
    NO3 3
    F <1
    Ca 10
    Mg 5

    Experimental

    A 10% solution of the sample was prepared and analyzed for the parameters listed above. The anions (SO4 and NO3) were analyzed on the filtered sample by the automated method (Lab Test Nos. 33052-B and 33053-B), using the Technical Auto Analyzer II systems. The high sulfate content of the sample made it necessary to dilute the sample one hundredfold. The Fluoride content was determined by the electrode method (Lab Test no. F4805-A). Analysis of the metals (Ca and Mg) was carried out by the flame atomic absorption method (Lab Tests Nos. G4040-F and G4045-F) using the Perkins-Elmer Model 403 AA. An aliquot of shaken sample was dissolved in 0.5% nitric acid and 5% hydrochloric acid prior to analysis of the metals.

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    Section 2.4.2

    Research Reports

    Research reports present the results of formal investigations into the properties, behavior, structures, and principles of material and conceptual entities. Almost any physical phenomenon or concept may be investigated in a research framework. The following are some key differences between formal research, and other less structured kinds of inquiry.

    1. Problem definition: the rigorous reduction of the inquiry to a narrow question with a quantifiable answer. The most significant preliminary phase of research writing is that of effective problem definition. This process is one of identifying an interesting question and narrowing the research inquiry to a manageable size.

    2. Research approach: the structuring of the research according to a methodology associated with a specialized field of inquiry. Specialized fields have research methodologies that are followed in investigating problems. These range from general methods of interviewing and literature researching to highly specialized procedures for using materials and mechanical devices to establish appropriate conditions for generating data. Adapting a sound research methodology to the investigation of your problem is a major milestone in the conduct of your inquiry.

    3. Research report: the presentation of the research and its results in a rigorously formatted document that follows a conventional structure. In presenting your research, you pull all its elements together into a focused, coherent document. Research reports contain a standard set of elements that include

      front matter

      body

      end matter

    The following research report illustrates report format and provides examples of the kinds of material contained in the various sections of an experimental document. Note that the report has been excerpted.

    [Image: Research Report Title Page]

    [Image: Research Report Abstract]

    [Image: Research Report Table of Contents]

    [Image: Research Report List of Figures]

    [Image: Research Report Page 1]

    [Image: Research Report Page 2]

    [Image: Research Report Page 3]

    [Image: Research Report Page 4]


    [Image: Research Report Page 5]

    [Image: Research Report Page 6]

    [Image: Research Report Page 7]

    [Image: Research Report Page 8]

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    Section 2.4.3

    Research Articles

    In the following example of a student research article, take note of these elements:

    Front matter

    Body

    End matter

    [Image: Research Article, p. 1]

    [Image: Research Article, p. 2]

    [Image: Research Article, p. 3]

    [Image: Research Article, p. 4]

    [Image: Research Article, p. 5]

    [Image: Research Article, p. 6]

    [Image: Research Article, p. 7]

    [Image: Research Article, p. 8]

    [Image: Research Article, p. 9]

    [Image: Research Article, p. 10]

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    Section 2.4.4

    Design and Feasibility Reports

    Design and feasibility reports describe one or more design solutions to a specific problem and determine if the proposed solution is practical and feasible. Preferably, more than one solution is offered, in which case the report compares the various designs and determines which option is best.

    Design and feasibility reports are essentially the same type of document, differing only in the amount of emphasis placed on practical and economic viability of the design in comparison with other possible solutions. A design report, often very similar to an internal proposal, focuses on describing one specific implementation. A feasibility study, on the other hand, also emphasizes the investigation and comparison of alternative solutions.

    Design reports and feasibility reports are crucial for decision making and product development in almost any technical organization. They document an engineer's thinking through a solution to a problem, a description of the solution, and the reasons why that solution should be implemented. Managers need accurate and comprehensive feasibility and design reports to decide where to commit scarce resources. In addition, an accurate and comprehensive design report helps in developing other documents, such as formal proposals, specifications, and work plans.

    Format of Design and Feasibility Reports

    Most design and feasibility reports contain the following elements:

    1. An abstract that concludes with a short summary of the recommended design.

    2. An introduction that presents the context of the situation and then gives a clear and concise statement of the problem to solved.

    3. A list of design criteria, in order of importance with the most important first. Clear and concise design criteria are crucial to any design process. They establish the standards by which it possible to determine whether a specific design is successful and to decide intelligently among competing designs.

    4. Descriptions of possible implementations. A design report will often describe only one possible implementation. A feasibility report will often present several possible designs.

    5. A recommendation with a comparison of alternatives. If a design report does not present any alternative designs, it should still explain the reasons for specific design choices with respect to the design criteria. Feasibility reports usually present one (or sometimes two) recommendations and argue for the recommended solution by showing how it best meets the stated criteria. Graphic devices, such as a table listing how each implementation meets each design criterion, are very effective in summarizing the reasons for the specific design recommendation.

    6. Elaboration of design. Design reports and feasibility reports often then give a more detailed description of the recommended design.

    7. Conclusion with recommendations for further actions and a listing of issues that must be resolved before the design can be implemented.

    An example of a design and feasibility report follows.



    A HyperText Filing Proxy


    Debajit Ghosh
    Professor Agarwal
    REC TR 2pm
    March 21, 1996

    An Improved HyperText Filing Proxy

    Abstract

    This paper discusses a proposed design for a large-scale caching system for World Wide Web (WWW) pages. After examining the criteria the caching system should achieve, this paper reveals some of the issues and possibilities inherent in such a caching system. It then presents the decisions made in the new improved HyperText Filing Proxy (HTFP) WWW caching system and compares HTFP to other web caches used today.

    1 Introduction

    If the dramatic growth of the number of web sites in the world (from 130 to 90,000 sites between June 1993 and January 1996 [1]) is any indication, web traffic clearly accounts for more and more of the traffic on the Internet. Since much of that consists of repeated requests for the same pages from different clients, a caching system could reduce the amount of traffic on the net. This reduction not only helps to relieve load on network servers but also becomes a necessity when traffic is costly.

    At the time if this writing, NEARNET is considering charging the MIT community per byte transmitted across the link to the Internet it provides to MIT. As one might imagine, this could get very expensive for a community that transfers 40,895,505 kilobytes a day [2] from the Internet, so reducing the amount of this traffic becomes a key issue. As mentioned, caching web pages can reduce the amount of traffic on the net; this can save the MIT community a considerable amount of money. Obviously, relying on an individual browser's caching system for a single user would not suffice; these caches are quite volatile and are typically much smaller than necessary to make a significant reduction in the amount of web traffic across a network. Thus, we developed an improved Hyper Text Filing Proxy (HTFP) to provide such a large-scale caching system. Basically, HTFP is a proxy server; all web requests are sent to the specified proxy server, which either returns a cached version of the requested page or retrieves a fresh one from the source. This paper outlines many of the issues considered in the design process, highlights and describes the features of HTFP, and compares HTFP to several other existing WWW caching systems.

    2 Background

    Before describing how the HTFP system caches web pages, let me give you some background on the workings of the World Wide Web. This section will explain how the web works and describe an important part of many web servers known as a proxy server. I assume that the reader has at least used a web browser and done a minimal amount of exploration on the World Wide Web.

    When a user clicks on a URL (Uniform Resource Locator, an address of a page on the web) in his or her browser, the browser opens a TCP connection to the URL's target web server and sends a request for the page.

    . . .

    Many networks now exist behind "firewalls," security systems that block incoming and/or outgoing traffic. For this reason, individual users' machines cannot send web packets to the rest of the network and browse web pages on the WWW. These networks usually provide a machine known as a proxy server that can transmit and receive information through the firewall. This server accepts web requests from clients within the network, retrieves the requested web pages, and returns them to the clients. Proxy servers can also be useful in environments not restricted by a firewall, as this paper will explain.

    3 Design Criteria

    An ideal web caching system would retrieve a web page from an external server only once, place it in a cache, serve the cached copy transparently to clients requesting that page, and automatically update the cached copy whenever the original has been modified. Of course, no web caching system can flawlessly realize all of these features. Accordingly, HTFP prioritizes the features it wishes to achieve from among the ones mentioned above.

    Specifically, the most important criterion is that HTFP reduce the amount of web traffic between MIT and NEARNET. The next important criterion is that the system be user-transparent; users should notice a difference between retrieving pages from their source or retrieving them from the cache. In addition, users should not get stale (outdated) copies of web pages from the cache. Finally, the caching system should be robust, efficient, and as simple as possible while still meeting the other criteria.

    4 Design Issues and Considerations

    HTFP represents but one of many possible implementations of a caching system that attempts to meet the above criteria. In fact, it represents a mixture of many ideas and possible implementations of such a system. In order to understand the thought process behind the design of HTFP, we must first review some of the other possibilities and compare them to the mechanisms present and implemented in HTFP.

    4.1 Proxy vs. Transparent

    Most global web caching systems (as opposed to the personal cache that each browser maintains for a specific user) implement the caching system system through a proxy server within the client's network. Because of the popularity of firewalls in network, proxy servers are already popular, and their very nature makes them an obvious place to implement a cache; the cache system could simply intercept web requests and return cached results rather than actually forwarding the request to the content provider. After much consideration we decided to implement our web caching system on a proxy server as well. We did, however, consider the alternatives and ramifications of our decision, as explained below.

    . . .

    5 Implementation details

    This section will outline the exact process by which a web request is handled and discuss other details and features of the HTFP system. First, the client, who is configured to use the master proxy as the HTTP proxy server for web servers outside the mit.edu domain, sends a request to the master proxy server. Based on whether the destination is a .com, a .edu, or another type of site (including straight IP address, the master proxy server forwards requests to a sub-pool of proxies (probably about three servers in each pool). One proxy server is chosen randomly from this sub-pool and receives this request.

    The chosen proxy then determines whether or not the request is cachable as described above. If it is not, the proxy opens a connection to the external server, retrieves the data, and immediately returns the response to the client. Otherwise, the proxy uses an arbitrary hashing function to hash the URL and checks the top-level index of its cache for the page. This index contains the URL, title (if the page is an HTML document), two-character hash code, and actual file on the server for each page. The index is organized by hash code; the proxy can save time by initially checking only the appropriate section based on the hash code of the requested URL. If this fails, the proxy then hashes the referring URL. For component data, such as images, the referer header [14], used by the dominant browsers such as Netscape, contains the URL of the component's associated document which it checks against the corresponding section of the index. If this check fails, the proxy then scans its top-level index; it also sends RPC messages to the peer proxies in its subpools, asking each to check their own caches for the URL and return a find. . . . 

    6 Comparison with other caching systems

    HTFP borrows and shares many ideas and features with other web caching systems. Implementing the cache in a proxy server is one of the easiest, most networkfriendly methods, in terms of slowing down the network. Given the structure and information provided by the HTTP protocol, there are a limited number of ways to address the concern about the expiration and validity of cached data. . . . 

    Some of the other popular or well-designed web caching systems in use today include W3C httpd, the Harvest cache, and DEC's web relay. Of these, the former two are the most popular and widely used today, with the Harvest accelerator gaining more and more popularity daily.* W3C httpd and DEC's web relay are rather similar; the caching system is implemented in a single proxy server and distribution of the load complicates the system if maintaining a consistent cache among the servers is desired. Harvest explores and implements some of the hierarchicalcaching system ideas considered and discussed in this paper, such as having cache-misses on an individual proxy propagate to higher-level servers. HTFP probably most closely resembles the Harvest cache; however, even these two systems contain significant differences. Table 1 provides a comparison between the key distinguishing features of the above proxy-based caching systems. Following the table is an explanation of the presented criteria.

    Table 1: Comparison of HTFP with other popular web caching systems

    Transparent reduce traffic easily scalable load distribution grouping of documents visibility of cache
    W3C httpd yes yes
    DEC relay yes yes
    Harvest yes yes yes yes
    HTFP yes yes yes yes yes yes
    • Transparent: all of the caching systems are more or less transparent, in that they are implemented in a proxy server and require only a one-time configuration in order to be used.

    • Reduce traffic: regardless of efficiency of caching mechanisms, all of these systems reduce traffic to the outside network. Whenever a cache hit does occur, none of these systems will normally send any data to the outside network. Further, if the network allows it (e.g., no firewall), not everyone needs to go through the proxy server to reduce the overall network traffic to the Internet. Simply by having a reasonable portion of the network's users utilizing the cache, the network will benefit from some reduction in the amount of Internet traffic.

    • Ease of scalability: Because only Harvest and HTFP are already designed to be distributed, these two can easily be scaled. Of course, the other systems can be scaled by adding more disk space or memory to the proxy servers. However this is not always practical or useful, especially in terms of server load. HTFP may have a slight advantage in this category, since new machines can be added to scale the cache size with minimal reconfiguration or thought of placement. One only needs to change settings on the master proxy server. Harvest may require reorganization of the hierarchy of the cache system.

    . . .

    7. Conclusions

    HTFP represents a robust, scalable caching system that achieves many of the targeted design criteria. It brings new ideas and features into a continually explored and developing field. In designing this system, I considered many issues and alternatives. Often, as with any system, HTFP had to sacrifice some elegance, simplicity, or transparency in order to maintain efficiency and usability. With some of these sacrifices, and with the newness of some of HTFPs features, this caching system has some tradeoffs and possible negatives. It offers opportunities for further development. Specifically, HTFP could benefit from examining the following hard problems:
    • Reducing the chance of bottleneck at the master proxy server. Although the load is distributed among a pool of proxy servers, all requests need to go through the master proxy server; this represents a potential bottleneck and a possible source of problems.

    • Establishing a method to ignore cached entries and to force a proxy to retrieve web pages from their sources upon client request.** This can help obtain stale versions of seemingly valid data, such as documents containing server-side includes.

    • Preventing duplicate storage of the same web page served by different servers or the same server with different names (for example, espn.sportzone.com and espnet.sportzone.com map to the same machines). This could be done via storing pages under the IP address of their sources; this approach, of course, increases the complexity of the system and may create additional Internet traffic during name resolution.

    Notes

    * Based on scanning server logs for proxy-type specification on both the author's Web servers and other Web servers.

    ** The DEC system accomplished this by modifying the messages the web browser sends to the proxy; obviously, this is not user transparent or practical for a large user base or for commercial, unmodifiable browsers.

    References

    [1] Measuring the Growth of the Web, http://www.netgen.com/info/growth.html

    [2] MIT Backbone Traffic Statistics, http://web.mit.edu/afs/net/admin/noc/backbone/quarterly

    [3] Hypertext Transfer Protocol, HTTP/1.0, http://www.w3.org/pub/WWW/Protocols/HTTP/1.0/spec.htm#GET

    [4] The Harvest Cache and Httpd-Accelerator, http://excalibur.usc.edu/

    [5] Host Distribution by Top-Level Domain Name, http://www.nw.com/zone/WWW/dist-bynum.html

    [6] Hypertext Transfer Protocol /1.0.http://www.w3.org/pub/WWW/Protocols/HTTP/1.0/spec.html#POST

    . . .

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    Section 2.4.5

    Progress Reports

    Project monitoring and accountability are the main objectives of progress reports. The typical progress report gives some summary of the project goal, states the progress made toward that goal during the reporting period, discusses significant costs and scheduling issues, and lists future objectives to be carried out. Generally, progress reports are prepared at intervals, most frequently at quarterly intervals of the fiscal year. The intervals are often specified in the initial project proposal.

    Consultants use progress reports to maintain contact with sponsors. Research organizations use progress reports to inform funding organizations, government or commercial, of their work progress. Internal research workers use progress reports to report on their work to managers and others within their own organizations. Progress reports are useful tools for management in keeping track of work progress in their groups, and they also furnish researchers a structure for monitoring their own commitments and levels of support.

    Format of Progress Reports

    The general format of progress reports varies widely from an informal business letter giving an update on work accomplished to the highly detailed formal structure required by funding agencies at specified intervals. The sequence of information is often as follows:

    1. Front matter. Project title, funding source, contract number, funding period, report date, research organization, and funded staff

    2. Body. Project summary, overview, report of progress, problems (cost or schedule issues), future work

    3. End matter. References, attachments

    Following are excerpts from a progress report.

    Pipe-to-Pipe Impact: Quarterly Report

    January 1-March 31, 19--

    Report Number NUREG/CB-16

    Reactor Safety Research Programs

    P. N. Laboratory,

    Richland, WA 99352

    Contract Number B83234-6

    Division of Accident Evaluation

    Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research

    U.S.N.R.C.

    Washington, D.C. 20555

    Summary

    One additional pipe-to-pipe impact test was run during the last quarter. Additional testing was temporarily suspended to decide two new questions. Should possible flaws in the specimen be characterized? If so, which nondestructive examination techniques should be used? The consequences of rupturing specimens under pressurized water reactor (PWR) conditions were given additional attention because of their potential safety hazards.

    Introduction

    The object of the Pipe-to-Pipe Impact Program is to provide the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) with experimental data and analytical models for making licensing decisions regarding pipe-to-pipe impact following any break in high-energy fluid system piping. Current licensing criteria, as contained in Standard Review Plan 3.6.2 in Dynamic Effects of Piping Rupture, are being evaluated. Data is being obtained from a series of tests in which selected pipe specimens with appropriate energies are being impacted against stationary specimens to achieve required damage levels.

    This program involves two main areas: obtaining experimental data and developing predictive models. Preliminary analyses . . . 

    Technical Progress

    The first supported test from the matrix was completed using underpressurized specimens at room temperature. Compressive strains of over 55% and tensile strains of over 25% were detected on the impacted pipe. Significantly more deformation and higher local strains than expected were observed for the target pipe . . . 

    After tests were conducted, the target pipe revealed several cracks on the outside surface in areas of relatively high tensile strain. Microphotographs of the wall cross section showed that the crack penetrated at a very shallow angle with the surface. The distance along the crack was ~0.040 in., but the maximum depth was . . . 

    A concern has been raised that the specimens should be nondestructively examined before additional testing, in order to characterize any flaws that could possibly cause a rupture of the specimen. If the size . . . 

    Delays in Subtask D-2 Loop Experiments

    Reductions in funding have limited the FY 19-- task to demonstrating the capabilities of the testing facility with two unirradiated cladding samples. The samples have been rescheduled to be tested . . . 

    Future Work

    The following activities are planned for the next quarter:

    • The pressure vessel and instrument will be installed in the loop system.

    • Two tests with unirradiated cladding will be completed.

    • The irradiated cladding for future tests will be delivered to PNL.

    • Data analysis and reporting will begin.

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    Section 2.4.6

    Consulting Reports

    The consulting report provides expertise on technical problems for audiences that are not expert in the field of interest. Consulting reports are written by outside experts for groups or organizations that do not have the time or the expertise to treat the subject or problem. Hence, a consulting report may present experimental work on a problem defined by a client. One common variation on the consulting report is the white paper, which examines a general problem from an expert's perspective. White papers do not present experimental inquiries but, rather, cover a series of findings or generalizations based on expert insights into a problem or class of problems and a set of issues. These findings constitute the body of the consulting report. In other respects, the consulting report follows the general structure of the formal report: front matter, body, and back matter.

    The following white paper examines a class of problems from an expert's point of view. It is addressed, however, to the nonexpert who stands to benefit from this information.

    The New Strategy of Integrated Systems:

    Why Technology Doesn't Always Mean

    Competitive Advantage

    May 15, 1984

    M. B. Packer

    Executive Vice President

    Technology Systems and Operations

    Simon and Schuster

    Upper Saddle River, NJ

    Introduction

    Many executives now devote substantial portions of their day to worrying about new technology: how to develop it, how to market it, how to use it, and not least how to pay for it. Yet, because the new wave of technology sweeping through corporations is fundamentally different from previous technologies, new kinds of strategies must be devised to gain competitive advantage.

    The new wave of technology has been building ever since the advent of computers. Between information technology (e.g., database management systems, office automation, and personal computers) and design and manufacturing technology (e.g., computer-aided design, robotics, automated storage/retrieval systems), few industries have remained untouched by computerization. Any firm that wishes to remain in business must ride this wave of technology, both in its product line and in its own operations.

    How New Technology Can Build Competitive Position

    There are only three ways to gain advantage using technology: keep your competitor from obtaining it, develop or adopt each new technology faster than your rivals do, or implement it better than the opposition.

    The first of these avenues--keeping competitors from obtaining technology--is impossible if the technology was developed in another industry. For instance, Aetna Insurance cannot stop Liberty Mutual from buying the latest IBM computer. Even proprietary technology developed for a firm's own products is not always safe: "reverse engineering" can reveal technological advances to competitors. A strategy based on trying to keep the competition from obtaining technology over the long term seems to work only in industries with large financial barriers to entry (e.g., the chemical process industry) or for firms with unusually strong patent positions.

    The second avenue, to develop or adopt new technology faster than the competition, can work in two situations: extremely agile companies willing to commit their resources to speculative ideas, and large firms that dominate by virtue of their sheer financial and technological power. However, firms that try to stay ahead of their competitors by continually marketing technologically more advanced products are vulnerable to later market entrants, who learn from earlier mistakes while avoiding heavy R&D investments. Similarly, attempts to outflank rivals by adopting new technology for one's own operations may simply lock a company into expensive and obsolescent systems.

    The third approach, to surpass competitors by implementing technology better in your own products and operations, has been largely neglected by corporate strategists in the U.S. Yet Japanese firms have captured whole markets by stressing the implementation of manufacturing and product technology. These firms lavish attention on vital components of implementation: quick changes in manufacturing set-ups, detailed quality control, low inventories, and highly trained workers. Using systems and technology, these Japanese firms have made implementation the core of their strategy of quality and responsiveness to customer demand.

    In contrast, American strategists focus on broad considerations of market growth rates, market share, and the competitive structure of the industry. Executives concentrate on quick, dramatic moves (such as acquisitions and divestitures) that they can directly control. Unfortunately, implementing new technology is harder to accomplish. It often requires a change in corporate structure and culture, and demands detailed knowledge of the technology and operations of both one's own business and that of one's customers. As Robert H. Hayes and William J. Abernathy have pointed out, relatively few American executives have this kind of knowledge (Robert H. Hayes and William J. Abernathy, "Managing Our Way Toward Economic Decline," Harvard Business Review). As a result, implementation is viewed as an obstacle rather than an opportunity, as something that needs to be "managed" and overcome.

    Yet implementing technology better than competitors can be the key to long-term success: the "how" is more important than the "what." The ability of a firm to use implementation as a competitive weapon hinges upon its appreciation of the basic characteristics of these new technologies and of their strategic implications.

    The Rise of Integrated Systems

    Most new technologies share not only a common dependence upon computers but also two crucial, basic characteristics: they hold the potential to integrate business functions and to improve the flexibility with which an organization can respond to a changing environment and change its direction. Three examples will illustrate this point.

    • Computer-aided design systems (CAD)--The biggest gains from CAD systems result not from automated drafting but from their ability to integrate functions such as conceptual design, engineering analysis, producibility checks, and tape generation for numerical control machine tools. Many users purchased CAD equipment, ignorant of the importance of this integration, and are now burdened with incompatible systems.

    • Decision support systems (DSS)--These business analysis tools aid managers in free-wheeling investigations of market trends and business operations. Allowing managers to query corporate databases using English-like commands, decision support systems bring together a wide variety of information and analytical techniques in a whole system. With decision support systems, managers have the flexibility to tailor questions to their own needs rather than to the capabilities of the data processing system. However, these advantages can only be garnered if corporate databases are suitably structured for such inquiries.

    • Robotics--Most current industrial "robots" really represent soft automation: a spot-welding robot on a Detroit assembly line essentially replaces an individual laborer. However, robots now beginning to enter factories are true integrated systems, which combine traditional materials handling (e.g., transportation, fixtures, sorting), part fabricating-(drilling, deburring, assembly), and inspection functions. Too often, robots are installed in isolation without sufficient consideration given to material flow, production balancing, and other factors.

    The new wave of participative management methods and work redesign efforts is also characterized by its emphasis on integrating business functions and increasing flexibility. For example, the quality control concepts espoused by Deming, Juran, and others combine the functions of production work, quality assurance, and often maintenance or process development, as well. Since workers have broader skills, management can deploy them more flexibly. Similarly, new transaction processing systems in some banks give one clerical worker control over an entire customer transaction, improving both job satisfaction and responsiveness to customer requests.

    All of these new technologies and management methods are fundamentally different on a strategic level from older technologies. Older technologies such as transfer lines in mass manufacturing or early financial transaction processing systems targeted two strategic goals: achieving economies of scale and tightening management control. These technologies and methods assumed strategies of minimization: to minimize cost and to minimize variances. The result was systems that divided tasks into small pieces and repeated each task efficiently. Unfortunately, as world-wide competition becomes more important and as manufacturers stress quicker response to customer demands, these strategies are no longer adequate.

    Implications for Corporate Strategy

    How can a firm use new technology to maximize the effectiveness of its operations and of its products? The key is not to look at new technologies and management methods in isolation. Each represents a possibility of competitive advantage by integrating business functions and enhancing flexibility. The implications of this idea range from new product development to customer service and from manufacturing to finance. Four brief examples show the advantages of this type of strategic approach.

    • Software development tools--Every major firm now faces enormous backlogs of application software development and immense maintenance costs for existing software. Firms that deal successfully with this problem will take approaches that emphasize integration of business functions and flexibility. The first possibility is to move data processing closer to the user (perhaps through personal computers or through IBM's Information Center concept). This not only gives the user more control over his work (and thus more flexibility) but also integrates user need analysis, programming, and data interpretation. The second approach (taken by firms such as Higher Order Software) is to create tools that automatically write provably error-free code from the user's specification of the problem. This integrates user-need analysis and programming and eliminates most logic and programming errors as well. In order to gain competitive advantage, firms must concentrate not on the mechanics of these approaches but rather on the philosophy that underlies them--namely, bringing varied business functions together whenever possible.

    • Manufacturing--Many sophisticated companies now use materials requirements planning (MRP) packages. The essence of the MRP approach is to link previously isolated functions such as inventory control, production scheduling, bill of materials preparation, and ware-housing to actual customer demand. (Incidentally, supermarkets are also utilizing the same strategy of tying inventory control and accounting to actual customer demand through use of check-out scanners linked to central computers.) Yet maximum benefit from this MRP approach can only be obtained if all systems are tied together. One relatively untouched possibility is to integrate CAD systems that generate bills of materials directly with the MRP system. Such a link could determine if design changes might improve production scheduling and thus smooth the manufacturing process. Integrating these functions has implications for organizational structure as well: firms will increasingly turn to matrix-style or project team organizations, which mirror the technological interconnections of their design and manufacturing groups.

    • Financial services--The explosion of one-stop financial services (families of money market funds with exchange privileges, Sears Roebuck's forays into insurance, stockbroking, real estate, are a few) is another example of the power of a strategy based on integration. These organizations looked beyond the database technology that makes one-stop financial services possible. They saw that competitive advantage could stem from integrating consumers' various financial needs. Instead of using technology only to lower their costs (a strategy of minimization), they focused on technology as a tool to integrate customer functions and to enhance their own flexibility to change direction and emphasize different mixes of products.

    • Personal computers--While the use of personal computers is already widespread, their potential has barely been tapped. Most personal computers can perform only one function at a time (e.g., word processing, electronic mail, database inquiries). Thus a manager who wishes to examine his electronic mail while in the middle of using a word processing program to write a letter must save his letter on a disk, exit the word processing program, load the mail program, and read his mail. The real revolution in personal computer usage will not come until those devices can change tasks as quickly as people can. Hardware and software firms are now developing machines that can perform several tasks at once, that display several "windows" on the screen so users can switch rapidly from one task to another, and that employ "mouse"-type pointing devices to speed transfers between tasks. The Apple Lisa workstation and Lotus Symphony software are examples of this type of approach.

    Technology and Strategy Formulation

    Strategic planners traditionally study the structure of the market in great detail: market segmentation, industry structure, and product positioning are ubiquitous phrases in their vocabulary. Technology often appears only in comparisons with competitors: does the firm lead or trail its rivals in product line X? Does it have lower manufacturing costs in Division Y?

    Yet technology and its implementation can play a more central role in strategy formulation. Planners should consider technology not just as something in which the firm is strong or weak, but rather as something with its own inherent strategic characteristics. Implementation of technology can be viewed as an opportunity to gain competitive advantage, not just as a challenge thrown in the path of strategic planners. Specifically, strategic planners should:

    • Gain a deep and detailed knowledge of their firm's technology. Without a comprehensive picture of both process and product technology, how can they understand the forces working on their firm? How can they ask where the market is going without sophisticated sense of technological trends?

    • Think in terms of the strategic characteristics of their firm's core technologies. Do these technologies implicitly assume strategies of minimizing costs and variances, or do they rely primarily on integration of business functions?

    • Ask what integration possibilities are inherent in the technology. Is it best aimed at horizontal integration across organizational functions (e.g., computer-aided design linked to manufacturing sales, and purchasing groups), at vertical integration across levels of control (an information system that gives corporate executives real-time access to detailed plant data), at geographical integration of branches, plants, and distribution centers (branch banking data processing and communication systems), or at integration with the outside world (order entry systems at the customers' sites)?

    • Remember that technology for its own sake is useless, at best, and dangerous, at worst. To buy robots or word-processing machines without a clear sense of how they fit with current organizational structures, power relationships, and reward systems is a sure prescription for disaster. Don't buy technology, buy strategies.

    • Consider the implementation of technology as an opportunity to restructure the business and to redefine the industry through integration. Should project teams be set up between engineering and manufacturing when CAD equipment is first purchased? Should the customer handle more of a financial transaction through personal computers?

    • Ask whether the firm can really maintain a long-term proprietary position in technology. Does it have the resources or a narrow enough market niche so that it can always stay one step ahead of its competitors? If not, a strategy focused on implementation may be the best option.

    Without modern technology, firms will not survive. Yet paradoxically, technology by itself often gains a company little beyond parity with its strongest rivals. It is in the implementation of technology to coordinate and integrate business functions that a firm can win a new kind of competitive advantage.

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    Section 2.4.7

    Trip Reports

    Trip reports are a common part of organizational communication. They generally follow the format of a memorandum, addressed to one or more members of a group of associates. They should include the reason for the trip, what was found, and one or more conclusions.

    In the following example of a trip report take note of these elements:

    Memo heading

    Purpose statement

    Topics

    Header

    Recommendations

    Distribution list

    [Image: Trip Report, p. 1]

    [Image: Trip Report, p. 2]

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    Section 2.5

    Letters

    Use letters to communicate outside your organization. Whereas the memorandum is the primary vehicle for communication within an organization, letters are often used to communicate to individuals outside it, especially in formal and semiformal contexts.

    Letters are an essential part of all business and technical communication because they are more formal and reliable than electronic mail and more precise and permanent than telephone or face-to-face conversations.

    Types of Letters

    Like memoranda, letters perform many functions in scientific and technical communication. The following are some of the most common types of letters written by people in technical fields.

    Job application letters

    Acceptance letters

    Transmittal letters

    Inquiry letters

    Technical-information letters

    Letters of recommendation

    Format of a Letter

    If your organization has a specific style for business letters, follow that format. Otherwise, follow the guidelines provided here.

    Business letters are commonly either full-block formatted, with every line starting at the left margin and usually a business letterhead at the top of the page, or modified-block formatted, with the heading and the closing aligned at the center of the page.

    Elements of a Letter

    Business letters have the following elements:

    Heading

    Date

    Recipient's address

    Salutation

    Body

    Closing

    End notations

    Heading

    If you are using letterhead stationery, include only the date two lines below the bottom of the letterhead. Spell out the name of month.

    If you are not using letterhead stationery, begin with your full address (city, street, and zip code) 1 to 1½ inches from the top of the page. Spell out address designations, such as Street, Avenue, and West. The state name may be abbreviated using the two-letter, all-capitals U.S. Postal Service designations. Include the date aligned at left with the address, spelling out the name of the month.

    Recipient's Address

    Two to four lines below the date, place the following items:

    • The recipient's title (such as Mr., Ms., or Dr.) and full name (address a woman who does not have a professional title as Ms. unless you know she prefers Miss or Mrs.; if the recipient does not have a title and you are unsure of his or her gender, omit the title).

    • The recipient's job title, if appropriate.

    • The name of the company or institution, if appropriate.

    • The full address, following the same format as for the address in the heading.

    The recipient's address is always aligned on the left margin.

    Salutation

    Place the salutation two lines below the recipient's address. The salutation begins with the word Dear, continues with the recipient's title and last name, and ends with a colon. If you are unsure of the recipient's gender and the recipient does not have a professional title, omit the title and, instead, use both the first and the last names in the salutation (Dear Leslie Perelman:). If you do not know the name of the recipient of the letter, refer to the department you are writing to (Dear Technical Support:). Avoid salutations such as Dear Sir or Madam:.

    Body

    Start the letter two lines after the salutation. Body paragraphs should be single spaced with a double space between paragraphs. (Indenting the first line of each paragraph is acceptable but is more informal than the unindented style.)

    Be concise, direct, and considerate. State the letter's purpose in the opening paragraph. Include supporting information in a middle paragraph or two, and conclude your letter with a brief paragraph that both establishes goodwill and expresses what needs to be done next.

    If a letter requires more than one page, make sure there are at least two lines of body text on the final page. Never use an entire page for just the closing. The second page and all subsequent pages must include a heading with the recipient's name, the date, and the page number.

    Closing Phrase

    Write a complimentary closing phrase two lines below the final body paragraph. Yours truly, Sincerely, or Sincerely yours are common endings for professional letters. Capitalize the first letter of the first word of your complimentary closing, and end the complimentary closing with a comma.

    Four lines below the closing phrase, write your full name. If you are writing in an official capacity that is not included in the stationery's letterhead, write your title on the next line. Your signature goes above your typed name.

    End Notations

    At the bottom of the last page of a business letter, end notations may show who typed the letter, whether any materials are enclosed with the letter, and who is receiving a copy of the letter.

    The typist's initials, in lowercase letters, follow the initials of the author, in capital letters, and a colon or a front-slash (LCP:ecb or LCP/ecb).

    An enclosure notation--Enclosure:, Encl., or Enc.--alerts the recipient that additional material (such as a résumé or a technical article) is included with the letter. You can either identify the enclosure or indicate how many pieces there are.

    Enclosure: Article by I. W. Waitz

    Encl. (2)

    Enc. (2)

    In addition to the enclosure notation, always refer to your enclosures explicitly within the text of the letter.

    A copy notation (cc:) lets the recipient of the letter know who else is receiving a copy. Put each recipient of a copy on a separate line.

    cc: Dr. Maria Lopez
    Mr. William Astley

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    Section 2.5.1

    Job Application Letters

    Write job application letters that identify a specific area of employment, summarize your qualifications for the job, refer to an enclosed résumé, and request the next step of the application process, usually an interview.

    Application letters are usually just one page and consist of three sections:

    1. Front matter. State that you are applying for a specific job title or field. Also mention the person who referred you or told you about the job. If you learned of the job from an advertisement, mention that.

    2. Body. Explain specifically why you are qualified for the job. Describe education and work experience and any other activities that display relevant talents, such as foreign-language proficiencies and leadership or supervisory experience.

    3. End matter. Refer to your enclosed résumé and express your desire for an interview, stating when and where you will be available for one. In addition, invite further inquiries, and state how you can be contacted.

    Following is an example of an application letter.

    Sample Job Application Letter
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    Section 2.5.2

    Acceptance Letters

    Letters accepting a job not only convey information, but also establish a contractual relationship between you and the organization or person offering you the position. Consequently, acceptance letters should accurately restate the key terms of employment.

    Send an acceptance letter as soon as you are absolutely sure that you want to accept the job offer. If you need more than two weeks to decide whether or not to accept an offer, telephone or write the person making the offer and ask for an extension of time to decide.

    Format

    Begin the first paragraph by enthusiastically accepting the job. Be sure to state the exact title of the job and the salary.

    The second paragraph usually discusses details about the position, especially the date that you will begin work.

    The last paragraph is short statement of goodwill, usually indicating that you are looking forward to starting your new job.

    The following is an example of a standard letter of acceptance.

    Sample Acceptance Letter

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    Section 2.5.3

    Transmittal Letters

    A transmittal or cover letter accompanies a larger item, usually a document. The transmittal letter provides the recipient with a specific context in which to place the larger document and simultaneously gives the sender a permanent record of having sent the material.

    Transmittal letters are usually brief. The first paragraph describes what is being sent and the purpose for sending it. A longer transmittal letter may summarize key elements of the proposal in one or two sentences and provide the recipient with other useful information.

    End transmittal letters with a one-sentence paragraph that establishes goodwill by thanking or complimenting the recipient.

    The following document is an example of a formal transmittal letter accompanying a grant proposal to the National Science Foundation. The structure of the letter, the use of language, such as herewith, and the use of the passive voice reflect common conventions for submitting formal scientific proposals.

    Sample Transmittal Letter, page 1

    Sample Transmittal Letter, page 2

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    Section 2.5.4

    Letters of Inquiry

    A letter of inquiry asks someone for specific information. In some cases, such as a request for promotional material, the recipient will have a clear interest in responding to your letter. In other cases, such as a request for specific information on a product, the recipient may or may not be as motivated to respond quickly. Consequently, always make the tone of the letter friendly and make it easy for the recipient to identify and provide the information you need.

    Format of a Letter of Inquiry

    Follow this format in writing a letter of inquiry:

    1. In the first paragraph, identify yourself and, if appropriate, your position, and your institution or firm.

    2. In the second paragraph, briefly explain why you are writing and how you will use the requested information. Offer to keep the response confidential if such an offer seems reasonable.

    3. List the specific information you need. You can phrase your requests as questions or as a list of specific items of information. In either case, make each item clear and discrete.

    4. Conclude your letter by offering your reader some incentive for responding.

    The following letter of inquiry is written by a computer programmer requesting specific information about an upcoming release of a software product.

    Sample Letter of Inquiry, page 1

    Sample Letter of Inquiry, page 2

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    Section 2.5.5

    Technical-Information Letters and Memoranda

    Technical-information letters and memoranda are short documents that announce new technical information, such as a software bug and its solution, or a new feature. Use the memorandum format if the information is being sent inside an organization. Use the letter format if the document will be sent to outside individuals.

    The following example is adapted from a technical-information memorandum written by Information Systems at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The document informs users of MIT's Athena network of a change in the protocols of MIT's main World Wide Web (WWW) server that allows users to place shorter Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) in their WWW pages.

    Sample Technical-Information Memorandum, page 1

    Sample Technical Information Memorandum, page 2

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    Section 2.5.6

    References and Letters of Recommendation

    Follow standard procedures in obtaining references, and use conventional formats in writing letters of recommendation.

    References are an essential component of almost all admissions, grant, and employment processes. Managers and other individuals in any selection process need evaluations from individuals who have had long and close contact with applicants in order to assess accurately their abilities and accomplishments. The number of recommendations required by employers and universities usually ranges from one to five, with three being the most common number.

    There are two basic forms of references: oral and written. Most often, oral references are conducted by telephone. The name, professional title and affiliation, address, and phone number of each reference are included in a list of references, which is often mentioned in résumés and application letters but always kept separate from them.

    Give your list of references to a potential employer or to a selection committee only when it is requested. Your recommenders are doing you a favor. If you subject them to too many intrusions, you may find them less willing to help you in the future.

    Written letters of recommendation are more formal. Often, they are written to a specific individual for a specific position. In other cases, however, letters of recommendation are written for a general type of job or for graduate school and are included in a collection of letters of recommendation called a dossier.

    See Obtaining References and Letters of Recommendation for guidelines in developing a list of references and obtaining letters of recommendation.

    For guidelines on writing letters of recommendation, see Writing Letters of Recommendation.

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    Section 2.5.6.1

    Obtaining Letters of Recommendation

    Make your candidacy as strong as possible by carefully soliciting references and letters of recommendation. Letters of recommendation are extremely important in decisions to hire or admit an individual or to award a scholarship or grant. Consequently, be sure to spend adequate time and effort to ensure their effectiveness.

    In some cases, you list an individual as a reference, and the organization or individual considering your application will contact that person, often only if you are a finalist for the position. Other situations, however, require a formal letter of recommendation from each reference.

    General Guidelines for Requesting References or Letters of Recommendation

    • If possible, always ask one or two more persons than the minimum number you need.

    • Ask a range of persons who can testify to different abilities and accomplishments relevant to the position or award.

    • If possible, ask someone in person to write a recommendation or to be a reference. If the individual is far away, ask him or her by phone or through a written letter. Generally, unless you know the person extremely well, do not ask someone to be a reference or write a letter of recommendation through e-mail.

    • Never list a person as a reference or as someone who will provide a letter of recommendation until the person has agreed to do so.

    • Give each person serving as a reference or writing a letter of recommendation the following written information:

      • a description of the position or award you are applying for

      • a current résumé

      • a short statement of your professional goals longer than a one-sentence career-objective statement included as part of your résumé

      • background material to refresh the recommender's memory of specific work you did with him or her that you feel should be included in a letter of recommendation

    In addition, follow these guidelines for obtaining written letters of recommendation:

    • Generally, people give more weight to recommendations that contain a waiver of your right to see the recommendation. Sometimes, however, it may be prudent not to waive your right to review the recommendation, especially if you are unsure of the recommender's attitude toward you or of his or her writing ability.

    • Recommenders are busy people. Ask a person to write the recommendation and give him or her all the necessary material at least three weeks before the recommendation is due.

    • Sometimes recommendations are sent to a central office, such as a university career center, which then forwards the recommendations to specific individuals. In these cases, you may be able to ask someone in the office to review the recommendations on file and suggest which combination of recommendations best present an overall picture of your abilities and accomplishments related to your career objectives.

    • If appropriate, provide each recommender with

      • all required recommendation forms; be sure you have completed all parts of the form you are required to fill out.

      • a sheet stating to whom or where the recommendation should be sent. When appropriate, include addressed envelopes and, in some cases, postage.

  • One week before the recommendations are due, tactfully ask each recommender if he or she has sent the recommendation.

  • After the letter of recommendation has been sent or the reference has been given, write a short letter thanking the recommender. The recommender has spent time helping you, and such a recognition of his or her efforts not only is polite but also may make it easier for you to request future references or recommendations.

  • Keep all letters of recommendation and references current. In general, written recommendations that are older than three or four years carry little weight.

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    Section 2.5.6.2

    Writing Letters of Recommendation

    Write letters of recommendation to provide relevant information and to present an individual truthfully and positively.

    Guidelines for Writing Letters of Recommendation

    Before writing the letter:
    • In most cases, agree to write a letter of recommendation only if you can honestly write a supportive letter. If you cannot portray an individual positively, decline to write the recommendation.

    • Ask for a current résumé and as complete a description as possible of the position or program to which the person is applying.

    • Assemble and review all other relevant information you may have about the person you are recommending. It is often easy to overlook some important accomplishment.

    Writing the letter:

    • Present the person truthfully but positively. A recommendation that paints an unrealistic picture of a candidate may be discounted. A recommendation that focuses on negative qualities may do more harm than intended.

    • Tailor the recommendation to the position. A letter recommending an individual for a job as a camp counsellor should contain different information from that in a letter recommending the same individual for a job as a computer programmer.

    • Begin the letter by describing how you know the individual you are recommending and the specific contexts upon which you are basing your evaluation. In what situations have you known the individual? For how long? How closely?

    • Present the individual's general qualities relevant to the position along with one or two detailed examples. Including vivid detail will make the recommendation much more effective.

    • In most cases, a letter of recommendation should consist of three or four paragraphs and not be over one page in length.

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    Section 2.6

    Proposals

    In a proposal, identify a specific problem and state how you will solve that problem.

    Most organizations rely on successful proposal writing for their continued existence. You will most likely spend a major part of your professional life writing proposals. Proposals are carefully prepared and just as carefully reviewed by granting agencies. Proposals do not succeed on the strength of a name or as a result of flashy rhetoric. Rather, successful proposals demonstrate that you understand the scope of the problem (its background, theory, and application) and, furthermore, that you have developed a valid and well-focused approach for reaching proposed objectives.

    All proposals develop a plan of action in response to a specific need or problem. Some proposals are external, written in response to a request for proposals or an invitation to bid that has been published by an external organization. Other proposals are internal, written in response to a need within your own organization. In either case, your proposals must show that you understand the nature of the problem and that you have a specific and well-developed plan for arriving at a solution. Most proposals share a general structure for identifying the motivating problem, the objectives, and the proposed course of action.

    See General Structure of Proposals.

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    Section 2.6.1

    General Structure

    Learn the basic structure of a proposal.

    Proposals share a general document architecture, which is usually modified to suit specific circumstances. The overall structure of a proposal can be broken down into four parts:

    Front matter

    Body

    End matter, or management requirements

    Front Matter

    The front matter of a proposal includes the following components:

    Letter of transmittal

    Title page

    Summary

    Table of contents

    List of figures and tables

    Body

    Introduction

    In the introduction to a proposal, do the following:
    • Identify the motivating need or problem. Develop the immediate context in which this problem has been highlighted. In external proposals be sure you are responding to the published need and motivation as identified by the outside agency.

    • Focus your proposal by stating the key technical issues, as you perceive them, underlying the motivating problem.

    • State explicitly, and with unbiased language, your objectives.

    Technical Approach

    Identify and explain fully the technical approach you are taking to reach your objectives.
    • Ground your technical approach in a brief explication of necessary theoretical background: applicable theory, analytical models, previous work, and hypotheses.

    • Present your method and design for reaching your stated objectives. You will most likely make reference to figures in this section.

    • State how pertinent data will be acquired, and just as important, describe your data analysis methods.

    Management Requirements

    Explain clearly how you will manage the development of your proposal project. Proposal reviewers pay strict attention to this section because here you show that you have the required know-how to bring a project to completion. In this section, you will present the following information:

    A timetable (or Gantt chart)

    Required facilities and resources

    Materials and equipment

    Personnel (include résumés in appendix)

    Work Plan

    Include a work plan, sometimes called a project plan, as a separate section in all lengthy proposals. Preliminary project plans are also sometimes appropriate in feasibility and recommendation reports. In addition, most progress reports refer to all or part of previously existing project plans.

    See Work Plan for a discussion of work plans.

    End Matter

    Bibliography

    Résumés

    Appendixes

    Kinds of Proposals

    Proposals may be written or oral, for government agencies or the private sector. Following is an example of a written government proposal. For an example of an oral presentation, Oral Presentations.

    Aero-Environmental Research Laboratory
    Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics
    Massachusetts Institute of Technology
    Cambridge, MA 02139

    TAILORED STRAIN FIELD MIXING
    FOR CONTROL OF POLLUTANT EMISSIONS

    A Proposal submitted to

    Dr. Gabriel D. Roy
    Mechanics Division, Code 3322
    Office of Naval Research
    800 North Quincy Street
    Arlington, VA 22217-5660

    PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Ian A. Waitz,
    Assistant Professor, Aeronautics and Astronautics
    PERIOD OF INVESTIGATION: November 1, 1994 - October 31, 1997
    FIRST YEAR AMOUNT: $XXX,000
    TOTAL: $XXX,000

    August 1994

    Table of Contents

    1. Summary 1
    2. Background and Motivation 1
    3. Applications for Tailored Strain Field Mixing for Low-Emissions Gas Turbines 2
    4. Research Plan 4
    4.1 Numerical simulations of simplified model flows 5
    4.2 Diffusion flame experiments 6
    4.3 Review and analysis of mechanisms for driving controlled-strain mixing environments 8
    5. Work Plan 8
    6. Personnel 8
    7. References 10
    Appendix A. Resume of Professor Ian A. Waitz 14
    Appendix B. Descriptions of the MIT Aero-Environmental Research Laboratory (AERL) and the MIT Gas Turbine Laboratory (GTL) 16
    Appendix C. Budget Estimates for Proposed Project 20

    List of Figures

    Figure 1. Strained diffusion interface 3
    Figure 2. Simplified computational flow model 1 5
    Figure 3. Simplified computational flow model 2 6
    Figure 4. Experimental model flow 7
    Figure 5. Work schedule 9

    TAILORED STRAIN FIELD MIXING
    FOR CONTROL OF POLLUTANT EMISSIONS

    Ian A. Waitz Aero-Environmental Research Laboratory, 31-268
    Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
    77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139

    1. Summary

    Mixing enhancement is critical for implementation of low-NOx combustor technologies. Current mixing augmentation techniques being developed for application in low emissions gas turbine engines rest largely upon increased intensity of conventional turbulent mixing with relatively weak spatial and temporal coherence in length scales responsible for the majority of the critical fine-scale mixing. The objective of this project is to investigate mixing concomitant with spatially well-defined strain fields such that the emission of pollutant species is reduced. Strategies will be studied that use high strain rates to selectively enhance or attenuate pertinent reaction processes in the course of mixing.

    A joint Massachusetts Institute of Technology/Naval Research Laboratory program of analysis, numerical simulation, and experimental research is proposed to determine the feasibility and impact of tailored strain field mixing for control of pollutant emissions in marine and aircraft gas turbine applications.

    2. Background and Motivation

    The strong sensitivity of pollutant formation processes to local temperature and mixture fraction dictates atomization and mixing with extreme rapidity and spatial uniformity in low- NOx combustion systems. In lean-premixed-prevaporized (LPP), lean direct injection (LDI), and rich burn-quench-lean burn (RQL) combustors, molecular mixing of fuel and air that minimizes stoichiometric burning (and the associated local heat release that leads to fixation of atmospheric nitrogen) is desired. This must be accomplished in a manner that allows complete oxidation of CO, soot, and unburned hydrocarbons, while achieving combustor performance objectives and satisfying a variety of design constraints.

    The critical mixing requirements are set by the kinetic rates of pertinent oxidation and formation reaction mechanisms. These reaction rates are dependent on the local temperature and pressure, and relevant species concentrations. The progression of these reactions is also strongly dependent on the rate of strain in the fluid since this directly affects the fuel/air interfacial area, and diffusion of heat and chemical species.

    For the most part, molecular mixing and transfers of momentum and energy in current low- NOx combustion systems are the result of turbulent processes (e.g., jet injection from dilution holes). That is, there is largely random organization of strain rates in length-scales responsible for the majority of the mixing. Mixing using well-defined, tailored strain fields may be used to exert greater control over chemical reactions during the course of molecular mixing and exchange of momentum and energy. As reviewed below, depending on magnitude, strain can either increase or decrease the progression of a given reaction.

    Consider two semi-infinite planar regions separated by the x-axis, one containing fuel and the other oxidizer, as shown in Figure 1a. Infinitely-fast chemical kinetics are assumed so that locally the reaction

    . . .

    3. Applications for Tailored Strain Field Mixing for Low-Emissions Gas Turbines

    Because of the broad range of kinetic rates and heat release associated with primary and pollutant species chemistry, the reactions will be influenced differently by straining. Then, tailoring of the strain field may be used to satisfy the necessary fuel/air mixing and combustion requirements of gas turbine applications in a manner which minimizes pollutant emission.

    Figure 1

    Figure 1: Strained diffusion interface.

    One candidate for leveraging the effects of strain is to allow a reaction interface or strip of reactants to be convected in the field of an axial vortex such as that shed downstream of a lobed or forced mixer nozzle. Strain rates on the order of 1000/s are realizable for such geometries at flow conditions gerinane to gas turbine combustor applications. This may allow quenching of the primary hydrocarbon reactions in regions where stoichiometric burning might otherwise occur. For gaseous hydrocarbon flames (e.g. propane) extinction at atmospheric pressures occurs for strain rates between 300/s and 1200/s. In addition, the characteristic chemical time for such a reaction is 10- 4 s. This is on the same order or faster than that for some pertinent reactions in gas turbine combustors, so similar impacts of strain on reaction processes are expected.

    Four specific research questions are posed:

    1. Can high strain rates be employed to increase autoignition times for direct injection low-NOx combustor strategies? (Premature autoignition is seen as a potential barrier to effective implementation of LDI on next-generation gas turbines where pressure ratios may reach 60:1.)

    2. Can high strain rates be used to quench primary reactions to limit mixture residence time at high temperatures?

    3. Can high strain rates be used in the secondary and dilution zone to directly influence formation of NO and oxidation of CO and soot?

    4. What is the impact of large-scale (e.g. structures on order of the dome height), organized strain when the majority of critical molecular mixing is being carried out by fine-scale (e.g., 1/100 - 1/1000 of dome height), largely isotropic turbulence?

    The research plan described below is designed to address these four questions.

    4. Research Plan

    A joint Massachusetts Institute of Technology/Naval Research Laboratory program of analysis, numerical simulation, and experimentation is proposed. The objective of the research is to determine the effects of time-varying strain rates on ignition and extinction of the primary hydrocarbon reaction, and on pollutant species formation/oxidation in gas turbine engines. The approach will be to investigate these effects using simplified model flow fields which capture the essential physics present in a gas turbine combustor setting. This will provide the greatest clarity in distinguishing the relevant mechanisms and opportunities for emissions reduction. The functional requirements for these simplified model flows are:

    1. Finite volume of fuel/reaction products bounded by oxidizer (e.g., a fuel strip).

    2. Strain rates that vary as a function of time.

    3. Detailed chemical kinetics for primary hydrocarbon and pollutant species reaction processes.
    Numerical simulations and experiments are described below.

    4.1 Numerical simulations of simplified model flows

    Numerical simulations will be performed by an MIT graduate student in residence at the Naval Research Laboratory. The student will work under the guidance of Dr. Elaine S. Oran. Simulations will be conducted using the CMRFAST-2D code, which is a fully-parallelized, twodimensional, reacting, Navier-Stokes solver currently running on the Thinking Machines CM-5 Connection Machine. The code was originally developed at NRL [Oran, Boris and DeVore, 1992] and employs a flux-corrected-transport algorithm.

    . . .

    Two model flows which satisfy the functional requirements described in the beginning of Section 4 will be investigated. The first, shown in Figure 2, is a fuel/product strip subject to a time-varying strain rate. A similar configuration was used as a basis for the simulations of Thévenin and Candel [1993]. The primary independent variables of interest are the fuel/product species composition and temperature, and the variation of strain rate with time.

    [Image: Figure 2]

    Fig. 2: Simplified computational flow model 1.

    . . .

    The second model flow which will be studied is a fuel strip in the strain rate field of a vortex as shown in the schematic of Figure 3. This flow is more representative of a likely combustor implementation, containing both spatially and temporally varying strain rates. Large spatial variations in the strain rate field may limit the emissions reducing potential of the combustion strategies being investigated, and study of this model flow is intended in part to address this concern.

    [Image: Figure 3]

    Fig. 3: Simplified computational flow model 2.
    . . .

    4.2 Diffusion flame experiments

    Experiments will be carried out in parallel with the numerical simulations both to validate the numerical results, and to study the impact of large-scale straining in reacting flows with embedded fine-scale turbulence. The work will be performed in a model combustor to be constructed using existing combustion lab facilities in the MIT Aero-Environmental Research Laboratory. The facilities provide air flow up to 0.7 lb/s and automated control of gaseous fuel flow rate and dilution, in addition to a hot exhaust capability.

    A schematic of the experimental configuration is shown in Figure 4. Two splitter plates with a single convolution in the trailing edge will be stacked one upon the other. A gap between the plates will be used for introduction of gaseous fuels. The convolution in the trailing edge will generate a single counter-rotating vortex pair. The vortex pair strength, and thus the strain rate field, may be directly correlated with the slitter plate geometry (see for example, Waitz et al., 1994].

    [Image: Figure 4]

    Fig. 4: Experimental model flow.

    When the air and fuel velocities are matched, the experiment is similar to the simplified numerical model flow shown in Figure 3. Vortex strength and size with respect to the fuel strip width can be varied by changing the geometry of the stacked splitter assembly.

    . . .

    4.3 Review and analysis of mechanisms for driving controlled-strain mixing environments

    At the half-way point of the proposed program, after results of the numerical and experimental investigations begin to be obtained, analysis will commence of the (l) feasibility (2) impact, and (3) methods for application, of tailored strain field mixing in gas turbine engines. This will include analysis of existing streamwise-vorticity-enhanced mixing technology, as well as investigation of non-traditional approaches for introducing tailored strain fields.

    5. Work Plan

    A work schedule for the three year program is shown in Figure 5. The majority of the first year will be devoted to modifying the computational fluid dynamics code to enable its use for the flow fields of interest for this study. Simulations of the model flow fields will be carried out during the second year, followed by design and construction of the experimental test apparatus. 'Me experiments will be conducted during the third year of the effort.

    [Image: Figure 5]

    Figure 5. Work Schedule

    6. Personnel

    The principal investigator for this project will be Professor Ian A. Waitz, Assistant Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Director of the MIT Aero-Environmental Research Laboratory (AERL), and member of the MIT Gas Turbine Laboratory (GTL). A resume is attached in Appendix A; descriptions of AERL and GTL are included in Appendix B.

    Co-investigators include Dr. Elaine S. Oran of the Naval Research Laboratory and Professor Emeritus Frank E. Marble of California Institute of Technology. Bi-annual meetings will be held among the program participants. Dr. Oran will be responsible for advising an MIT student on the implementation of the CMRFAST-2D code, and will participate as a consultant throughout the course of the program. She is an expert in the field of numerical modeling of reacting flows and has served a similar role in advising students from the University of Maryland. Professor Marble will serve as a consultant at a level of effort of approximately 15 days/year. He is a recognized leader in the field of combustion science and has extensive experience in modeling the effects of strain on diffusion flames. He is the author of a seminal paper on the interaction of a diffusion flame with a vortex [Marble, 1985]. Professor Marble has a long standing relationship, with the MIT Gas Turbine Laboratory and makes several visits each year. Interaction with Professor Marble will be through these visits and possibly through one visit each year of the MIT student to California Institute of Technology.

    Funding is requested to support one MIT doctoral student for the three-year period. The program will take advantage of existing NRL facilities and personnel; funding for NRL is not requested for these activities. Budget estimates are contained in Appendix C.

    7. References

    Chomiak, J. "Application of Chemiluminescence Measurement to the Study of Turbulent Flame Structure", Combustion and Flame, Vol. 18, pp. 429-433, 1972.

    Driscoll, J. F., Sutkus, D. J., Roberts, Wm., L., Post, M. E., and Goss, L. P., "The Strain Exerted by a Vortex on a Flame-Determined from Velocity Field Images", AIAA 93-0362,1993.

    Macaraeg, M. G., Jackson, T. L., and Hussaini, M. Y., "Ignition and Structure of a Laminar Diffusion Flame in the Field of a Vortex," Combustion Science and Technology, Vol. 87, pp. 364- 387, 1992.

    Marble, F. E., "Growth of a Diffusion Flame in the Field of a Vortex," Recent Advances in the Aerospace Sciences, Plenum Publishing, 1985.

    . . .

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    Section 2.7

    Press Releases

    A technical press release usually announces the development of a new product. The audience for such a document consists of writers and editors of trade journals, where the product may be reviewed and potential customers who might want purchase the new product.

    A technical press release contains the following elements:

    A headline that identifies the product

    A lead paragraph giving key information that attempts to persuade the reader to investigate the product further

    A graphic that will secure the reader's attention

    A description of the product

    An explanation of why the product is important

    Information about whom to contact for further information

    An example of a press release follows.

    The ShearTubeTM ShearDamperTM for Precision Machine Tools

    Winner of a 1994 R&D 100 Award as being one of the 100 most technologically significant new products of the year.

    A ShearTubeTM ShearDamperTM allows an engineer to highly damp a structure without imposing strict limits on the structure's geometry or materials. As shown above, the ShearTubeTM damper is incorporated into a structure in the following manner:

    1. The structure has rough holes formed in it (casting, drilling, or welding in a pipe).
    • The holes may be any shape, but should maximize the cross-section perimeter (e.g., a square).
    • The neutral axes of the holes must be as far away as possible from the neutral axis of the structure.
    • Ideally, the holes almost fill the structure (e.g., four squares inside of a large square beam).
  • Modestly smooth-surfaced tubes (0.5 mm Ra) that are 3-5 mm smaller than the hole are covered with a high loss damping material (e.g., ScotchdampTM).
  • The tubes are suspended into the hole, and an epoxy replicant (e.g., VibradampTM from Philadelphia Resins) is injected (poured) around the tubes.
  • After the epoxy hardens, the component is ready to be used.
  • To achieve excellent temperature control of the machine, the ShearTubesTM are used like heat exchanger tubes to channel temperature-controlled fluid inside the machine.

    • Good stiffness and damping are necessary, but not individually sufficient, requirements of a precision machine. Typically, damping in a machine is obtained from the materials and microslip in the joints. The net result is that cast-iron structures have amplification-at-resonance factors on the order of 200. Polymer concrete structures can have 5-10 times more damping than cast- iron structures.

    However, many advanced materials (e.g., ceramics) have very poor damping and require an additional damping mechanism. The ShearTubeTM ShearDamperTM is a viscous shear damper that can be readily incorporated into machine structures. Applications include all types of machines where vibration needs to be damped.

    This design is fundamentally different from earlier constrained layer damper designs (e.g., exterior plates which had a tendency to delaminate or require tight manufacturing tolerances) in that the dampers are in the internal shear of a thin film of viscoelastic material. Since the neutral axes of the tubes are displaced from the neutral axis of the structure, bending of the structure causes relative motion to occur between the two surfaces. This motion shears the viscous fluid and dissipates vibration energy at a rate orders of magnitude higher than would normally occur in the material of the structure or in its joints.

    In addition, the tubes make excellent heat exchanger tubes in which temperature controlled fluid can be circulated. This allows machines to achieve virtually isothermal performance which greatly minimizes errors, as opposed to other vibration mitigation systems based on solid poured materials.

    This concept allows machine tool builders to design a machine with integrally cast longitudinal holes which can have ShearTubeTM dampers installed if the customer requests a high damping option on the machine order form. Thus the concept facilitates modular construction of machine tools.

    For questions of a technical nature, contact Prof. Alexander Slocum, and for questions of a commercial nature, contact Mr. Richard Slocum. Please send your inquiries in writing to:

    Dr. Alexander Slocum
    Aesop, Inc.
    PO Box 2126
    Concord, NH 03302-2126
    Fax: (603) 224-5369

    Mr. Richard Slocum
    Aesop, Inc.
    200 Forest Trail
    Nicholasville, KY 40356-9150
    Fax: (606) 224-8080
    e-mail: slocuminky@aol.com

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    Section 2.8

    Task-Oriented Documents

    Documents that enable users to carry out specific actions for well-defined results are said to be task-oriented. A task-oriented document seeks to describe a performance in enough detail to enable the reader to carry out the task. Task-oriented documents such as specifications, documentation, and instructions, transfer expertise. They enable their users to perform specific tasks as the absent expert would.

    Typical task-oriented documents include

    specifications

    user documentation

    technical documentation

    instructions and procedures

    style guides

    In all these documents, the author is providing expert guidance that ensures a given standard of performance.

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    Section 2.8.1

    Specifications

    Specifications are design outlines. They describe the structure, parts, performance, packaging, and delivery of an object or process in enough detail to enable a second party to construct the object or process. Specifications are widely used by contracting organizations as procurement documents. In this role, they legally bind the subcontractor to produce and deliver the object or process within the described guidelines. In general, it is better to design with and buy proven off-the-shelf technology, which is easy to order and test, than to go into the specification and custom-building situation.

    Specifications often include details of designs, dimensions, materials, performance, schedules, methods, and tests. The level of detail in a specification will vary according to how much freedom the specifier wants the maker to have in making design decisions. The writer of a specification must carefully study the requirements of a situation to determine what the key performance requirements for the specified technology should be. Specifications must be very detailed in calling out the exact way in which key items should be constructed and tested. However, the more specific the specifier is, the fewer options the builder has and the more expensive the item to be produced. Hence, detail and performance must carefully be weighed against cost.

    A specification could be a plan for

    a manufactured implement, such as a telephone

    the subsystem of an industrial product, such as an airplane

    a military item, such as a helmet

    a computer program for maintaining a physician's records

    a commercial contract, such as a house fire alarm system

    Specifications generally contain requirements for many of the following items:

    Purpose and scope

    Design overview

    Functional description

    Parts

    • Dimensions

    • Materials

    Performance requirements

    Testing

    • Method and equipment

    • Test procedure

    Delivery

    • Packaging

    • Schedule

    • Documentation

    Troubleshooting

    The spec sheet is a very brief specification that identifies key standards followed in the design of a tool or process. Spec sheets accompany many electrical items and are useful for repairing and replacing parts of the item.

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    Section 2.8.2

    Documentation (Manuals)

    The formal description of a mechanical system or a technical process is known as its documentation. Documentation takes the form of technical and user manuals that accompany various technological objects, materials, and processes. Electronic hardware, computers, chemicals, automobiles all are accompanied by descriptive documentation in the form of manuals.

    Two kinds of documentation are required when products are sold: technical documentation and user documentation.

    • Technical documentation is a physical description of a system, device, material, or process. This technical description is used by expert users and designers as guidelines to maintain and modify various elements of the system. Good examples of technical documentation are the wiring diagrams that accompany electrical hardware, the computer code that accompanies many programmed instruments, and the detailed pharmaceutical descriptions that accompany various medicines. These descriptions are all intended for experts, who must make informed decisions about the installation, capabilities, modifications, and applications of the technology in question.

    • User documentation includes the product guidelines addressed to the general user who needs to know basic requirements for getting the best use out of the technology. User documentation includes the manuals for product use, assembly, maintenance, operations, and repair.

    Manuals should be prepared with the object of making the information quickly available to the expert or general reader. Keep the audience foremost in mind. In manuals, ease of finding and reading information is a priority. Hence manuals should contain these components:

    Easy-to-use locating elements, such as tables of contents, indexes, and page headers

    Useful big-picture and close-up diagrams that make it easy for the reader to become familiar with the technology

    Effective warnings against personal harm and cautions against harm to the equipment

    Page designs that lay the material out effectively, with effective labeling, chunking, and white spaces

    Clear manual arrangements into sections and chapters organized around important tasks

    Simple, economical style, pared down to just what is needed

    Consistent, well-designed terminology that keeps the reader focused on the task

    Effective packages, with binders and covers designed for the working space in which the manual will be used

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    Section 2.8.2.1

    Technical Documentation

    Technical documentation is system description aimed at the technical specialist who needs to understand the systems design in sufficient detail to be able to apply, repair, modify, enhance, or add on to the system. Technical documentation is addressed to technician or expert audiences in the same terms used by the original designer:

    Original computer code

    Wiring diagrams

    Detailed system specifications

    Detailed design drawings

    Technical documentation normally includes a system overview, design drawings, including wiring diagrams, computer codes, component descriptions, and technical specifications.

    The following is a short excerpt from a technical reference manual on the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).

    Special Characters

    Minimum Attributes

    The leading ampersand is required. The ampersand and semicolon delimit an entity name which the user agent will replace with a special character. The trailing semicolon is necessary when the character following the entity is not a space or end of line. It is never incorrect to include the trailing semicolon.

    These main four special characters are specifically included in RFC 1866.

    &lt; < (less than sign)
    &gt; > (greater than sign)
    &amp; & (The ampersand sign itself)
    &quot; " (quote character)

    --Sandia National Laboratories, HTML Reference Manual

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    Section 2.8.2.2

    User Documentation

    User manuals help the user adapt a technology to his or her purpose. The sale of any complex technology, whether computer, car, tape recorder, or spectroscope, implies the inclusion of adequate information to enable the user to use the technology safely and effectively. A good manual (hard copy or electronic) is a necessary tool to enable the user to use the technology. User manuals are valuable aids for training inexperienced users, enabling skilled operators to use the technology, and instructing technicians in how to repair or modify the technology.

    User manuals generally provide the following information:

    Safety warnings and tips

    Typical applications and capability of the technology

    Descriptive system overview with illustrations

    Functional description of subsystems

    Instructions for operating the system

    System maintenance requirements

    Parts lists

    Troubleshooting instructions

    These topics may all be treated together in a larger manual, or any of them may be the subject of a specialized manual such as a repair manual, an installation manual, a maintenance manual, or an operating manual.

    User Manual Style

    General style for user manuals should be clear and concise. The following section from an OCR scanning manual demonstrates clear manual organization and style.

    Chapter 3

    Scanning Tips

    This section explains how to achieve the best recognition accuracy possible. See the online Help for more detailed information.

    Improve OCR Accuracy

    OCR accuracy depends on the quality of the scanned image. You'll have very few errors if you scan sharp, laser-printed documents. Scanning faxes, dot matrix documents, and poorly printed pages may produce unacceptable results.

    Take the following factors into account when you scan a page:

    • The print should be reasonably clean and crisp.

    • The documents should be free of notes, lines, or doodles; anything that is not a printed character will slow OmniPage Limited Edition considerably.

    • The document font must be non-stylized; for example, the Zapf Chancery font is too fancy for OmniPage Limited Edition.

    • It's hard to recognize underlined text accurately; the underline changes the shape of descenders on the letters q, g, y, p, and j.

    • The sheet of glass on the flatbed of the scanner must be clean.

    --Caere Corporation, OmniPage Limited Edition Manual

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    Section 2.8.3

    Instructions and Procedures

    A procedure is a series of steps followed in a regular, definite order to achieve a specified result. The goal of a written procedure is to enable a user to carry out an action with which he or she might not be familiar. Procedures save the writer time, transfer expertise, ensure consistency, and prevent errors and accidents. Procedures may amount to a single sheet for assembling a table, a lengthy manual of operating routines for a nuclear reactor, or a computer manual full of routines for using an operating system like UNIX or DOS.

    A procedure is generally organized as follows:

    • Purpose and scope. States what the procedure accomplishes and the extent of its application.

    • Preliminary requirements. Identifies any items such as documents, personnel, special tools, approvals, field preparations needed to perform the procedure.

    • Warnings. Includes any dangerous aspects in performing the procedure.

    • Steps. Gives a step-by-step series of actions to be carried out in completing the procedure.

    An important aspect of procedures is their extensive use of chunking and step-syntax. Chunking is the sorting of parallel elements into prose sentences or elements that are easily located on the page. Step-syntax is the use of special imperative sentences to identify the action in each step of the procedure. A typical imperative begins with the action first, as follows:

    Cut the end of the cable, as shown in Figure 2-1, removing any sharp wire ends that protrude from the jacket.

    Safety Elements in Procedures

    Most instructions contain one or more safety elements. A warning is given before any step that may present an element of harm to the individual performing the step. A caution is given before any step that could present some risk to equipment. A note is included before or after any step that may need some additional explanation.

    The Step-Syntax Section of a Procedure

    Assembling the Interference Cable Seal

    Warning: Do not work with live cables, which may electrocute you.

    1. Ensure that the cable is not attached to a power source.

    2. Determine whether or not the optional seal boot will be used and assemble the seal parts (parts list, Section X).

    3. Cut the end of the cable, as shown in Figure 2-1, removing any sharp wire ends that protrude from the jacket.

      4. Caution: Do not use lubricants that may degrade the cable sheath.

    4. Apply a light coating of silicone compound, such as DC-55, to several inches of the cable.

    5. Slide the retaining washer over the cable and push it back out of the way.

    6. Slide the boot (if used) over the cable and push it back out of the way.

    7. Slide the seal packing onto the cable.

    8. Thread the cable the desired amount through the housing bore and out the small opening at the end of the housing.

    9. Lubricate the outer surface of the packing with silicone compound.

      10. Note: If the packing has been lubricated, the next step is easily accomplished with thumb pressure only. If additional pressure is required, use a blunt rod to squeeze the packing into the housing.

    10. Gently squeeze the packing and slide it into the annular space of the housing bore.

    11. Slide the boot (if used) and retaining washer into place and fasten them with the retaining ring.

    12. Prepare the end of the cable for making electrical connections.

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    Section 2.8.4

    Style Guides

    Style guides are widely used in the professions and in organizations to achieve a uniform document look by identifying formal requirements for document appearance. They are task-oriented documents in the sense that they provide definite instructions for preparing a document. In style guides, instructions are generally provided for numerous document elements, including most of the following:

    Page formats (title page and sample page with headers or footers)

    Numbering systems (page, graphics, sections)

    Headings and subheadings

    Bibliography, notes, and references

    Graphics elements

    Usage

    Punctuation and mechanics

    Document packaging

    For many documents, it is a good idea to identify a standard of style so that you achieve consistency of style. Consistency is important, not only because it genuinely improves the reader's ability to understand your material, but also because it gives the reader confidence in your ability to assert control over detail.

    You may set the standard of style by simply designating a document to follow as a model. You may also prepare your own style guide, something that may require only a one- or two-page listing of style guidelines. Most writers adopt a publication that gives style guidelines. Here are some common style guides:

    American Chemical Society. 1986. The ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors. Washington DC.

    American Institute of Physics. 1990. AIP Style Manual. 4th ed. New York.

    American Mathematical Society. 1990. A Manual for Authors of Mathematical Papers. 9th ed. Providence, RI.

    American Psychological Association. 1995. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 4th ed. Washington, DC.

    Council of Biology Editors. 1994. Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers. 6th ed. Chicago.

    Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. August 1965. "Information for IEEE Authors." IEES Spectrum 2.

    Modern Language Association of America. 1995. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York.

    University of Chicago Press. 1993. The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago.

    For further discussion of documenting sources, see Citing Sources and Listing References.

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    Section 2.9

    Theses

    The thesis or dissertation is an extended research report on a theoretical, experimental, or design project. The thesis seeks to make some original contribution to the writer's field of specialization. Written by college seniors, and by master's and Ph.D. candidates, theses are long, sometimes immense--from 30 to 250 pages and more--a once-in-a-career effort. Although the immediate audiences are mainly thesis committees, prospective employers also read theses. Thesis work is good evidence of how you work on problems. The quality of a thesis indicates the quality of an individual's thinking, organization, and powers of expression. Thesis work at the master's and Ph.D. levels may be cited by other researchers, and some thesis work is condensed and published in journal articles and reports.

    See also:

    The Thesis-Writing Process

    Thesis Proposal

    Format of the Thesis

    Thesis Defense

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    Section 2.9.1

    The Thesis-Writing Process

    Thesis research and writing need to satisfy several different institutional expectations, so planning is important. Here are the main phases of the process:

    1. Finding a good advisor and research problem. One critical part of the thesis is the setup, wherein you find an advisor, identify a problem, work out a project plan, and have the plan accepted. The situation is helped considerably if you establish a connection with a potential advisor a year or so before you start on a thesis--by taking a course, working in a laboratory, or helping as a teaching assistant.

    2. Developing a plan. Planning can compensate for lack of research and writing experience. By identifying the tasks and working out a realistic schedule--using suggestions from your advisor--you can see how phases of the research process fit together and you can anticipate problems before they get out of control.

    3. Carrying out the research. Part of the time may be devoted to literature research as a way of getting a good grasp of the problem and your methodology. A big part of the research time, especially for less experienced students, will often be given to project design and setup. It may take two months to design, construct, and calibrate an apparatus and only two weeks to run the key experiments. Learning how to manipulate new instruments and statistical packages can take a great deal of time, so try to factor that into your initial plans.

    4. Writing. The writing aspect of research is easily underestimated. It takes place through the entire project, from the initial proposal, through the keeping of a laboratory notebook, to the initial and final drafts of the thesis itself. Writing is part of the conceptualizing and analysis of subject matter.

    5. Packaging. Packaging the thesis takes time. Normally, a format printed by your department will specify title page and other manuscript conventions. In addition, you need to fill out the required forms for filing the manuscript, pay any necessary fees, and submit the required number of copies.

    6. Defense. The thesis defense for undergraduate work is often an informal ten-to-twenty minute oral presentation of your results, followed by questions and answers on the research write-up. For a master's or a Ph.D. thesis, a committee reads the final manuscript and then meets with the candidate for a more extended oral presentation, followed by questions and answers. Thesis defense takes a chunk of time at the end of the term when time is short, so make plans for it.

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    Section 2.9.2

    Thesis Proposal

    Write a clear thesis proposal. A thesis proposal identifies a research problem, gives some preliminary view of existing research on the problem, identifies needed resources, and sets down the schedule for the research and writing process. Proposal writing is a way of defining problems in terms of necessary levels of involvement, scheduling, and resource allocation.

    The thesis proposal normally includes the following:

    1. The background and context of your research problem. Why is the work important? What other work has been done on the problem thus far? What are some of the issues that concern the research you are proposing? Identify the meaning of any key terms you will be using.

    2. Problem definition and approach. Succinctly state your problem in two or three sentences. What other approaches were considered and why is your approach a more effective one? What criteria are you using to measure your success? One or more drawings may greatly help in your problem definition.

    3. Theoretical background. What, if any, state-of-the-art theory is important to your problem? If there are some crucial assumptions in your approach, this is the place to state them. Provide some account of the published literature, citing the leading articles, reports, or books that have treated relevant aspects of the problem.

    4. Procedure. Explain how you will approach the problem by providing a detailed series of steps. This sequence of steps should be accompanied by one or more drawings.

    5. Materials and support. What materials, instruments, facilities, and financial support will you need to carry out your research? List and briefly discuss them.

    6. Project task breakdown and schedule. Prepare a task breakdown and schedule of your work. Develop this section with some care, since it will provide you a means of measuring your progress in relation to your allotted time. If your time estimates turn out to be poorly gauged, then you may need to seek your advisor's help in redefining your goals.

    7. Bibliography. List the publications you have consulted in planning your research.

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    Section 2.9.3

    Format of the Thesis

    In form, the thesis is a lengthy experimental, design, or theoretical report, with a problem-method-results-discussion structure. This recurrent hypothetico-deductive pattern of developing a thesis to solve a problem and then constructing a methodology and testing for results is common in research writing. When you begin to write the first draft of your thesis, try to salvage useful material for problem statements, methodologies, and bibliographies from your thesis proposal. Make use of your laboratory notebook for detailed accounts of your procedures.

    Front Matter

    The front matter frames the thesis work. It includes these elements:

    • Title page. Your department will have a standard title page form you are required to follow. The title should be informative, contain keywords, and reveal the topic of the thesis. Include the title, author, thesis supervisor, place, and date.

    • Abstract. Briefly state the (1) research problem, (2) methodology, (3) key results, and (4) conclusion. Generally, abstracts are between 100 and 150 words--roughly 5-10 sentences.

    • Table of contents. List the key subject headings and subheadings of your thesis with their page numbers. Number the front-matter section in lowercase roman numerals. Be sure to list acknowledgments, appendixes, and bibliography.

    • List of figures. Include the figure numbers, figure titles, and page numbers.

    • List of tables. Include the table numbers, table titles, and page numbers.

    • Nomenclature (optional). List unfamiliar terms, symbols, acronyms and their meanings.

    Body

    In the thesis body, you provide the introduction, narrative, and analysis of your work. The body includes these elements:

    • Introduction. State (1) the purpose of the investigation, (2) the problem being investigated, (3) the background (context and importance) of the problem (citing previous work by others), (4) your thesis and general approach, and (5) the criteria for your study's success.

    • Theory. Develop the theoretical basis for your design or experimental work, including any governing equations. Detailed calculations go to an appendix.

    • Materials, apparatus, and procedures. List and describe key materials and apparatus. Then describe the procedure in enough detail that others can duplicate it. For design studies, this section includes component design, fabrication, assembly, and testing procedures. Use illustrations.

    • Results. Present the results, usually with accompanying tables and graphs. Characterize the patterns and quality of the results and estimate their accuracy and precision. Detailed data go to an appendix. Use analytical graphics.

    • Discussion. Discuss the meaning of the results, stating clearly what their significance is. Compare the results with theoretical expectations and account for anything unexpected.

    • Conclusions. Review the results in relation to the original problem statement. Assess the success of the study in light of the criteria of success you gave in the introduction.

    • Recommendations. If applicable, recommend directions for future work.

    End Matter

    The end matter is mainly referential material too detailed to fit well in the main narrative of work done. It includes these elements:

    • Acknowledgments. Acknowledge assistance from advisors, sponsors, funding agencies, colleagues, technicians, and so on.

    • Appendixes. Provide detailed calculations, procedures, data in separate appendixes. Give each appendix a title, a letter (Appendix A, B, C), and an introductory paragraph.

    • Bibliography. List alphabetically any works referred to in your study. Follow the bibliographical and footnote formats of your department or of a prominent periodical published by a professional society in your field.

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    Section 2.9.4

    Thesis Defense

    Prepare a clear oral presentation with illustrative graphics. Organize your oral presentation effectively and practice it before your defense. This presentation is the committee's basis for understanding your work. To organize your presentation, begin with your background, state the problem, and then give the specific approach, results, and conclusion. For further discussion of oral presentations, see Oral Presentations.

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    Section 2.10

    Oral Presentations

    Oral presentations can be formal or informal, depending upon their explicit and implicit purposes and the delivery situation. An oral presentation can be almost any report type, such as a design review, a proposal, or a conference talk. Whatever the specific type, however, an effective oral presentation is carefully planned with your objectives in mind and pays close attention to the demands of your audience.

    Oral presentations differ significantly from written documents in several ways.

    Written Documents Oral Presentations
    Publication permits potentially unlimited audience over time and place. Audience generally limited to time and place of delivery.
    No direct audience interaction. High level of audience interaction is possible.
    Refined argumentative structure. Simple presentation of main points.
    Large volume of detailed information can be communicated. Limited information transfer.
    Precise syntax and diction. Conversational syntax and diction.
    Emphasis on text. Emphasis on visuals.
    Reader controls pace of presentation. Speaker controls pace of presentation.

    Effective oral communication is a combination of many skills: outlining and planning, preparing overheads or other display media, rehearsing and delivery.

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    Section 2.10.1

    Informal and Formal Oral Reports

    An oral report may be delivered around a small table with just a few listerners or in a large auditorium to hundreds of people.

    Informal oral reports are generally characterized by small-group settings with a high degree of audience interaction and a relaxed manner of delivery and dress. An informal oral report might be an impromptu presentation. Informal oral presentations can foster the free exchange of ideas and be important for producing action items.

    A formal oral report is distinguished by its adherence to an agreed-upon format or outline. Formal oral reports are usually prepared well in advance of presentation and are therefore well rehearsed. Your manner of delivery is extremely important in a formal oral report situation. Audience interaction is generally limited to the question and answer period at the conclusion of your report.

    Formal oral reports may follow an outline similar to the parts of any formal written report and may be presented to an audience of one's peers or to an interested general or mixed audience in a setting such as a large auditorium or hall. However, the size of a room or an audience does not solely define a formal situation. Formal oral reports may also include presentations to small in-house groups of managers or academic committees, for example.

    Presenting effective formal oral reports is an important means of establishing and maintaining your credentials and authority within a field or within an organization.

    For an example of a formal oral report, see section Example of Materials for an Oral Presentation: Design Review.

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    Section 2.10.2

    Outlining and Planning an Oral Presentation

    Learn the basic outline for any oral presentation. Most consist of four parts:

    1. Introduction
    2. Body
    3. Closing
    4. Question-and-answer period

    Introduction

    The introduction to an oral presentation usually includes these components:

    Your name and other identifying marks you want to include (title, organization usually)

    The title of your presentation, including the type of presentation it is (report, proposal, design review, etc.)

    The motivation for discussing your topic

    The statement of objective

    Forecasting the contents of your talk (if your talk is over five minutes)

    To lend structure to your oral presentation, repeat key phrases from your introductory overheads throughout your presentation.

    For further discussion and examples of overheads, see Examples of Materials for an Oral Presentation: A Design Review.

    Body

    The body of an oral presentation includes these elements:

    An elaboration of the background of your topic, such as a theory or hypotheses for an experimental approach or procedure

    Development of specific content relevant to the type of report you are giving: citing equations, displaying relevant graphs or other figures (see Preparing Overheads and Other Display Media), presenting results and discussion of those results

    Closing

    The closing of an oral presentation includes these elements:

    A summary statement of your conclusions or recommendations, or other material suited to your report type (such as time schedules in a proposal)

    A request for questions from the audience where that is expected and appropriate

    Question-and-Answer Period

    In the question-and-answer period, you do the following things:

    • Interact with the audience by responding to their queries. Use the question-and-answer period as a means of collaborating with your audience: learn what you failed to communicate effectively; incorporate suggestions from the audience into the next stage of your work, where appropriate.

    • Gauge the effectiveness of your presentation from the kinds of questions you are asked. If the questions seem trivial or repetitious, then you probably did not communicate well to that audience.

    • Go into more detail about some points you covered.

    • Present new material in response to a question (when this material is used to support major points in your presentation).

    You should try to anticipate what kinds of questions you may be asked and prepare viewgraphs for this possibility.

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    Section 2.10.3

    Overheads and Other Display Media

    Overheads, whether acetate or digital, or other display media are usually the only physical, tangible means your audience has to follow your oral presentation. Therefore, learn how to prepare such visual materials effectively.

    Viewgraphs (Acetate Overheads)

    Viewgraphs are the most common method for displaying visuals and limited text during an oral report. Viewgraphs are made from 8½-by-11-inch acetate transparencies, onto which you photocopy the information you want to display.

    Preparing Viewgraph Text

    Choose the correct orientation of viewgraph--landscape (long edge on horizontal) or portrait (shorter edge on horizontal)--based on content, room size, distance to the screen, audience seating arrangement, and perhaps any preference expressed by the sponsoring organization.

    Title each viewgraph at the top. Titles should be in boldface and large enough to read (try 36-point type).

    Put main points in a bulleted list; subpoints of bulleted items should be indented beneath the bulleted item. Avoid writing complete sentences and wordwrapped lines. Use phrases and keywords instead. Avoid tables on viewgraphs.

    Keep mathematics to a minimum by showing governing equations only, not detailed derivations. (If you think you will be asked how an equation was derived, you can prepare these slides for possible use during the question-and-answer period.)

    Preparing Viewgraph Figures

    Choose the correct orientation of viewgraph--landscape (long edge on horizontal) or portrait (shorter edge on horizontal)--based on content, room size, distance to the screen, audience seating arrangement, and perhaps any preference expressed by the sponsoring organization.

    Title each viewgraph at the top (you do not need to number viewgraph figures as you do in a written report). Titles should be in boldface and large enough to read (try 36-point type).

    Figures should be schematic and graphs should be simplified if taken from a written report.

    Digital Overheads

    Software exists that permits you to create digital "overheads" that may be displayed using a small computer and a specially designed device atop an ordinary overhead projector. All of the guidelines that are presented for acetate overheads apply to digital overheads. However, digital overheads can be much more elaborate in design than the commonplace acetate overhead. As with any tool, however, you should be familiar with their limitations. Follow these simple rules for constructing digital overheads:
    • Avoid excessive typographical displays that may distract the audience from your content.

    • Limit the palette of colors you use. Some combination of colors will obscure your content.

    • Print dark words on a light background for ease of viewing.

    • Use animation sparingly and only to demonstrate those concepts that naturally require this method of display.

    In general, digital overheads may grab an audience's attention initially, but it is your content and style of speaking that will hold them throughout your presentation.

    Flipcharts, Whiteboards, Chalkboards

    At informal oral presentations, such as meetings, you sometimes make use of flipcharts (large sheets of paper bound at the top edge and placed on an easel), whiteboards (light-colored surfaces for writing on with dry markers), or chalkboards to display general points or to record items of discussion as they arise. These graphic media, while basic, are nevertheless subtle focusing tools for a speaker or the leader of a meeting. "Whoever controls the blackboard, controls the meeting" is an old saying but nonetheless often a true one. Effective managers know that the items that are recorded on the flipchart or board are the items that focus the discussion as it proceeds and are generally the points of discussion that get recorded in the minutes of a meeting.

    Learn these basic techniques for using flipcharts and boards:

    • Be brief. Write down only key words and phrases. Do not attempt to write a full transcript of a discussion as it is occurring.

    • Be legible. It won't help the audience if your writing cannot be read easily; therefore, print in block letters.

    • Be aware of the sense of the discussion. Don't mark down trivial asides or tangents, or only those ideas that interest you.
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    Section 2.10.4

    Delivery

    The most important element of an oral presentation is, of course, the content and ideas you are trying to communicate. However, the communication of content is often impeded by a poor manner of delivery. Effective public speaking involves the whole person, not just ideas. Manner of delivery includes style of speech, handling of equipment, dress, and movement.

    Rehearsing Oral Presentations

    You must rehearse so that your presentation will be clear, concise, and delivered in a relaxed and understandable manner.

    Part of your rehearsal is the drafting and report-planning process you must go through to organize your topic, as well as the process of preparing your visuals.

    • Get information on the kind of room in which you will be delivering your oral report. How big is it? What kind of sound system, if any, is available? Always try to familiarize yourself with the physical setting of your presentation beforehand.

    • Check out any equipment you will be using, such as overhead projectors, ahead of time. Be prepared to give the talk in an alternative format if properly functioning equipment is not available.

    • Never write out a full text of your talk with the intent of memorizing it. A memorized written text contains syntax appropriate to the page and the eye but will be difficult for the audience of an oral presentation to follow. If you are nervous, you may forget key memorized passages and become confused.

    • Use visuals as your main cue cards--if they are well designed, they will communicate your key ideas to the audience and serve as notes for you as well.

    • Write transitional phrases on the hard-copy version of your visuals. Avoid using index cards with notes on them. They will be difficult to handle during your presentation and will add to the clutter of materials at the podium.

    Your first rehearsal should simply be a review of the order of presenting your material. Riffle through your visuals until you have an intuitive understanding of their order and of their relevance to the organization and to the purpose of your presentation.

    Once you have established this intuitive flow for your presentation, try delivering a version of the complete report, noting those places where transitions or key ideas are weak. Repeat this process several times until you are satisfied that you have covered your topic clearly and concisely with language appropriate to your audience.

    Style of Speech

    A relaxed, extemporaneous style of speech and delivery will suit most formal and informal oral report situations. Effective speakers can deliver a presentation with great clarity yet with a relaxed and open manner. Extemporaneous speaking does not rely on a memorized text, nor is it a droning reading of a written manuscript. Instead, this style of speaking relies on visuals as cue cards. Let the main items on your overheads prompt you. If you have rehearsed your presentation, you will have a store of prepared but not stiff, memorized speech at your command. Extemporaneous speaking employs syntax close to that of conversational speech, without needless digressions or repetitions.

    Extemporaneous speaking allows you to react to any audience interaction on the spot without fear of deviating from a memorized script.

    1. Identify and try to avoid your verbal tics. All speakers have verbal tics, those phrases or sounds (for example, "okay," "umm," "and") that they insert during pauses or between sentences. Verbal tics, if repeated often enough, will annoy an audience and distract them from the content or argument you are trying to develop.

    2. Speak clearly and loudly. If you cannot be heard you cannot communicate your ideas.

    3. Modulate your voice to show emphasis. Oral communication does not have access to the rich store of typographical styles available to the writer to show emphasis. You can, however, show emphasis by stressing various words or by repeating key terms both in your visual materials and in your speech. In addition, varying your rate of speech will alleviate boredom and keep your audience alert.

    4. Face the audience and establish eye contact with them. If you do not face the audience (and sometimes nervous speakers don't), most likely you will seem distracted; if you are facing the screen, you will not be audible. As you face your audience, establish eye contact with them.

    Handling Equipment

    Point to the screen to indicate parts of a figure. If you bend over the overhead projector and use your hand or a pen to point out parts of an overhead, you will most likely obscure the full projected image and leave your audience in the dark. Move back from the projector, stand beside the screen, and, while facing the audience, use a pointer or a hand-held laser arrow to emphasize elements of the overhead.
    • Do not write on your overhead during a formal oral presentation. Writing in real-time (for example, to sketch out a derivation of an equation) during a formal presentation looks messy. Some pens will not write well on acetates. You will most likely obscure the image on the screen behind you. Instead, prepare additional overheads to show detailed derivations of equations in case you are asked to provide this information during the question-and-answer period.

    • Move away from the projector and to the side of the screen once you have placed an overhead on the projector so that you do not block the audience's view.

    Movement

    Avoid excessive movement around the podium. Unnecessary movements can distract the audience's attention from the content of your presentation. Similarly, a stiff, rigid posture will distance some audience members. Adopt a relaxed yet inoffensive posture at the podium. Remember, the audience is more interested in what you have to say than in you.
    • If you are delivering a formal oral presentation before a large audience, position yourself so that you do not obscure the screen behind you. Limit your range of motion, moving comfortably between the podium and the screen if necessary to underscore important items. Do not meander around in front of an audience.

    • Hand gestures may be used to show emphasis, but as with verbal tics, be sure you are not indulging in nervousness by gesticulating unnecessarily.

    • Always face the audience to maintain good eye contact and so that your voice will project into the room.

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    Section 2.10.5

    Example of Materials for an Oral Presentation: A Design Review

    The oral design review is a kind of progress report in which you present the current (or final) state of your experimental design for review. Your audience is typically a composite of experts, technical staff, and managers. Lay audiences are rarely participants.

    Oral design reviews focus on the following content:

    Detailed designs of experimental apparatus and procedures, including working drawings

    Detailed plans for completion of your project with time lines and final budgets and material lists

    Basic Outline for a Design Review

    Opening:

    Title: Prepare overheads showing title of project and project investigators, managers, date, and type of report

    Introduction: Prepare overheads showing motivating problem and need for investigation, statement of objective

    Body:

    Present overheads showing

    present state of planning and final experimental designs

    any major changes in approach or design (significant questions raised and how you have resolved them)

    working drawings of experimental apparatus

    final test matrices

    Closing:

    Prepare overheads showing

      final list of materials needed

      status of equipment procurement

      final time schedule for completion of project

    Piezolelectric Actuator Control of a Helicopter Rotor

    Blade Rotation

    Motivation

    Current Design

    Objectives

    Design Goals

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    Section 2.11

    Meetings

    Meetings are the lifeblood of every organization, big and small. Ideas are exchanged freely during meetings, items to be acted upon are identified, policies are agreed upon or changed, and individuals, irrespective of status, are able to have their voices heard. Meetings may be formal or informal, depending upon the number of individuals attending, the purpose, and the context of a meeting.

    Meetings rarely happen spontaneously, however, and are usually planned well in advance, with published agendas circulated beforehand for individuals to consider. Meetings, whether formal or informal, usually also are recorded in a set of minutes, which are circulated sometime after the meeting. You should also be comfortable with using display media such as flipcharts, whiteboards, and chalkboards to run a meeting.

    Pacing a Meeting

    Effective leaders of meetings know that discussion of items can get bogged down in minutiae and that sometimes an agenda must be dispensed with because a seemingly minor item has been shown to be enormously important. Pacing a meeting effectively means being able to discern when a topic has been discussed enough and when discussion needs to be pressed further.

    Pacing a meeting effectively also means making sure that everyone in attendance has had an opportunity to speak, even if this means inviting an especially quiet individual to talk. Good meetings encourage a free exchange of ideas among all participants.

    Effective leaders of discussions use flipcharts, whiteboards, or chalkboards to focus discussion.

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    Section 2.12

    Electronic Documents

    Electronic documents such as electronic mail, Web sites, and hypertext are rapidly becoming major forms of communication.

    Electronic media offer many advantages for technical communication, including almost instantaneous transmission of information, easy distribution to a large number of recipients, and the ability to link one text to many others.

    There are, however, many situations where printed documents are still the most appropriate form for technical communication. Printed documents, for example, are often more private, secure, permanent, and portable than are electronic documents.

    In deciding whether to put your document in electronic or print form, consider your audience's purpose in reading the document, and when, where, and how they will use it.

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    Section 2.12.1

    Electronic Mail

    Electronic mail (e-mail) allows for the almost instantaneous transmission of a message from one computer through a network to one or more other computers and is rapidly becoming one of the main forms of both professional and personal communication.

    Characteristics of E-Mail

    Like a telephone conversation, e-mail is immediate and informal. Like a memorandum, it is more precise than an oral conversation, it provides a record of the communication, and it can send a single message to a large number of people.

    Unlike telephone conversations or memoranda, e-mail should not be considered private. E-mail is sent through public networks where messages are often copied multiple times during transmission.

    Whereas the basic unit of a memorandum is the single 8½-by-11-inch page, the basic unit of an e-mail is the 22-line screen. Consequently, e-mails should be kept short and concise. Finally, because e-mails are generated so easily, many individuals receive scores of messages every day.

    Guidelines for Writing Effective E-Mail

    • As in other forms of communication, start with you--a statement acknowledging the recipient.

    • Keep your message short.

    • Make heading clear and exact.

    • If something is urgent, mark it "Urgent."

    • Include a short introduction indicating exactly to what you are responding, even if the original message is included.

    • If the e-mail is important, print it out and proofread it carefully before you send it.

    • Take time to cool off.

    • Remember that a message can end up anywhere.

    • Remember that electronic privacy doesn't exist.

    • E-mail etiquette is still evolving:

      Avoid using all capital letters.

      Do not forward an e-mail without permission.

      Keep e-mail addresses confidential.

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    Section 2.12.2

    Web Sites

    The World Wide Web supports the creation and transmission of an unlimited number of multimedia documents composed of text, graphics, animation, video, and audio. Multimedia Web documents are assembled and reside on computer servers scattered around the globe that can be accessed by anyone, anywhere, at any time.

    Web communication is different from hard-copy publication because hypertext and the Web support nonsequential navigation through online documents that are in essence "authored" by readers as they follow one of a potentially unlimited number of pathways through a "document."

    Guidelines for Composing Web Documents and Web Sites

    • Provide a graphical map of your Web site to help your audience conceptualize the organization, extent, and usefulness of information available there.

    • Limit presentation of information to one screenful whenever possible (unless you are maintaining an online archive of reports originally published in hard copy).

    • Limit the size of video and audio files to be downloaded (downloading video clips even a few minutes long can be a time-consuming process, turning the World Wide Web into the World Wide Wait).

    • Follow the general guidelines for graphical representation when creating figures and other static illustrations.

    • Show the context or reason for a link to another file or part of a file (or to another Web site) so that your audience can decide beforehand if they want to go there.

    Vast online archives of scientific and engineering reports are now available over the Web.

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    Section 2.12.3

    Hypertext

    Hypertext is a compositional tool as well as a conceptual approach to communication. As a compositional tool, hypertext markup languages allow the author of a hypertext to establish links among the parts of a document, or between any number of complete documents, for ease of reference or for amplification of an idea. Since the reader of a hypertext can choose to follow these links or not (and in some contexts, such as a Web site, establish new links), hypertext tools also permit the reader to become an "author" as well. The "final" hypertext document, therefore, may take any number of forms, depending upon the needs of the audience.

    Hypertext technical documents are very useful for training and for communicating instructions and procedures.

    Guidelines for Creating Hypertext Links

    • Consider the audience for your document, their limitations and demands.

    • Let subject matter determine the kind and number of links between documents (or Web sites). Unexplained and arbitrary links will make your audience feel "lost in hyperspace."

    • Structure the pathway of links in a coherent, useful way. Move your reader from general principles or important first steps down into subsidiary elements of your topic.

    • Establish a context for a link when that link is to related but not crucial supporting material. That way, readers can decide if they want to access that information at that time.

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    Section 2.13

    Résumés

    Almost all prospective employers meet your résumé before they meet you, and their reaction to it usually determines whether or not they will consider you further by interviewing you. In addition, your job interviews will often start with references to your résumé. Consequently, spend considerable time in developing one or more versions of your résumé, each one targeted for a specific type of job.

    Effective résumés contain the following elements:

    Heading

    Professional or job objective

    Educational history

    Work experience

    Your special skills, activities, and accomplishments directly relevant to your professional objective

    Reference statement

    Heading

    The heading should contain your name, full address, and phone number, including area code. If you have them, you may also include a FAX number, an electronic mail address, and even your World Wide Web page (if you are sure that you want all prospective employers to see it).

    Professional or Job Objective

    The objective statement is a short, one- or two-line description of the sort of job you want and the specific fields in which you are interested. It does not have to be a complete sentence.

    Educational History

    Summarize your educational history in reverse chronological order, showing how it has prepared you for the sort of job you want. List descriptive titles (but not course numbers) of all relevant classes you have taken. If you have not yet received your bachelor's degree or if you have just graduated, include the name of your high school, the city and state in which it is located, and the dates you attended.

    Work Experience

    List all relevant work experiences in reverse chronological order, using action verbs to provide vivid and specific descriptions of all activities that are connected with your job objective.

    Relevant Skills, Activities, and Accomplishments

    List any skill (such as proficiency in a foreign language or expertise in specific computer applications) that may be relevant to the position. In addition, list any activity or accomplishment that will provide a positive first impression of relevant personal qualities, such as your energy level and initiative, your ability to work with diverse groups of people, and your communication skills. Do not, however, list hobbies or memberships merely to fill out the résumé. Include only activities and accomplishments that a prospective employer may find relevant to the position.

    Federal law prohibits employers from asking job applicants certain personal information concerning gender, race, religion, age, and marital status. Include such information on your résumé only if you believe it may help you obtain an interview. Because of government contracts, for example, certain employers can hire only citizens or residents of the United States. Consequently, if you are applying for such a position and you are a United States citizen or resident, you should include that information.

    Reference Statement

    In most cases, conclude your résumé with "References available on request." List the names of your references only if doing so is customary in your profession and only if you have secured explicit permission from each individual to include his or her name on your résumé.

    Most résumés should not be more than one page. However, if you have extensive relevant experience and skills, do not hesitate to extend your résumé to two pages.

    Your résumé must be readable, neat, and free of grammatical, spelling, and typographical errors. Because it is so crucial in the job application process, edit your résumé carefully and have someone else review it before you send it out.

    The following résumés illustrate the main features of résumeé format.

    Resume of Mary Lee, page 1

    Resume of Mary Lee, page 2

    Resume of Frederick P. Jones

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    Section 2.13.1

    Action Verbs for Résumés and Job Application Letters

    Most employers want to hire active, energetic individuals. Use action verbs to emphasize and to describe vividly what you have done and accomplished. The following list provides a sample of effective action verbs to use in résumés and job application letters.

    acted
    analyzed
    assembled
    assessed
    briefed
    calculated
    coached
    compared
    compiled
    composed
    computed
    coordinated
    created
    demonstrated
    designed
    developed
    diagnosed
    directed
    edited
    established
    evaluated
    executed
    founded
    implemented
    instructed
    invented
    investigated
    led
    maintained
    managed
    negotiated
    operated
    organized
    performed
    planned
    prepared
    produced
    promoted
    reported
    researched
    restored
    reviewed
    searched
    surveyed
    synthesized
    taught
    tested
    worked
    wrote

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    Section 2.14

    Notes and Notebooks

    Develop a routine for taking notes and maintaining notebooks. There are many ways to record information, each with its advantages and limitations. The important step for every writer is to come up with a system that works and that fits into his or her habits of work. Some people take brief notes in a notebook, with entries under the situation and date. Others take preliminary notes and then elaborate in computer files that may be arranged and subject-coded. Here are some important principles for note taking:

    • Devise a consistent approach to note taking. If you like to use 5-by-7-inch cards, then stick to that system for any given project so that you shape your materials in a consistent way. If you find it more useful to keep a bound notebook, then develop your note-taking system in that medium. If you like the options of a computer note file, then give some time and effort to setting up a computer note-taking file system. The important matter here is to have a method so that you do not get confused later about what system you are trying to follow.

    • Record with enough detail to trace your notes to their sources. Be sure that you record information in sufficient detail and that you identify the source of your notes. When you travel to the field, you need to leave with notes that are detailed enough to be recognizable. That means identifying whom you spoke with, what items you were examining (locations, names, references), and the full publication data of documents you used. If you miss those details, you may find yourself with valuable information that you cannot use because you left out some critical element or you cannot trace the information to its source.

    • Use notes to summarize key points. Notes are effective only when they economize. The three important objects of note taking are (1) accurately recording important ideas and facts, (2) reducing sources to manageable scope (i.e., data reduction), and (3) incorporating ideas and detail into your own conceptual scheme. A good set of notes extracts from the source that which is important to your work. An hour-long meeting should produce maybe a page of notes or a half-dozen note cards. An important paper might also produce a page or a half-dozen cards. The most inefficient note taking occurs when you try to record every detail.

    • Systematically read over your notes. Study your notes regularly so that you have a good concept of the progress and shortcomings of your research or project. Notes can help you immensely in maintaining your focus and thus conserving efforts. They also help you identify gaps or shortcomings, and they help you channel your efforts in productive directions. This familiarity with your notes will be the main source and support of your writing effort.

    Laboratory Notebooks

    Keep in mind that even informal kinds of record keeping have legal status. Any formal project work that is funded should be accompanied by a record-keeping process. This record keeping will be the basis of any effort you must make to show that you performed work according to accepted standards of your field and in the manner you originally set out to follow.

    Laboratory notebooks are a special, legal form of note taking. A laboratory notebook should be bound and numbered, and you should write on only one side of each sheet. The notebook should have a front-cover label, and it should describe the project--dates, personnel, addresses, and project particulars--in more detail on the first page. A few pages may be left blank for a table of contents to be entered when the notebook is complete. Each page should be dated and initialed. Items typically recorded in notebooks include meeting notes, experimental notes, drawings, timelines, references, formulae, tables of data, equipment readings, materials used (grades, vendors, concentrations). In short, include any item in sufficient detail that it will be useful at some later date when you are writing a narrative of what you did. One of the most common problems in laboratory notebooks is that of missing some detail, such as an equipment setting or a calibration level, that is necessary later to establish the quality, accuracy, and precision of your data. Hence, it makes sense to subject your notebook to routine review by your colleagues or research director to determine whether your note taking standard is a good one.

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    Section 3

    Elements of Technical Documents

    The elements that make up the many kinds of technical documents are often similar in form and function. These elements, collectively called the format, include titles, abstracts, introductions and the like. Writers use formats to establish the order of content in the document's front matter, body, and end matter. The format is generally followed by a professional community because the standardization of the document form makes it easier for readers to establish the purpose of the document, to understand how the document is organized, and to compare the document's content with that of other documents.

    The following list identifies some standard elements that may appear in technical documents. Most documents, whether memorandums, proposals, research articles, research reports, or design reports, are composed of a selection of these elements.

    Front Matter

    Title page

    Abstract

    Table of contents

    List of figures

    List of tables

    List of terms

    Acknowledgments

    Body Introduction

    Background

    Theory

    Design criteria

    Materials and apparatus

    Procedure

    Workplan

    Results

    Discussion

    Conclusion

    Recommendations

    End matter References

    Appendixes

    Index

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    Section 3.1

    Sections and Subsections

    Organize and develop your writing in sections and subsections--sometimes referred to as chunks. A section is a distinct part or chunk of a body of material. Sections and subsections may be one or more paragraphs long. The material in a section fits together under a topic, which is usually identified by a subject heading or subheading. By developing sections and subsections, you help the reader see how the material develops and make it easier for the reader to move around in the document. The sectioning or chunking strategy is one of the most effective means a writer has to make his or her material more readable.

    See also Outlining.

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    Section 3.2

    Headings and Subheadings

    Use frequent descriptive subject headings and subheadings to reveal the structure of your document. Headings identify the subjects that are treated in sections of your document. Headings are part of a writer's forecasting strategy. They help the reader navigate through your document.

    Note how the subject heading in the following example signals a shift to the reader.

    In North America, yellow fever has not been reported since 1905, when an outbreak in New Orleans, La., resulted in some 5000 cases and 1000 deaths.24 But in recent years, much of the southeastern United States has been reinfested with A aegypti mosquitoes, and a yellow fever outbreak could occur.25

    Improving Yellow Fever Surveillance

    In Africa, efforts to improve surveillance for yellow fever were initiated in 1993 in response to the resurgence of this disease. These efforts have been carried out in the context of ongoing national communicable disease programs, using . . .

    --S. Robertson, et al., "Yellow Fever: A Decade of Reemergence," Journal of the American Medical Association

    Be sure that your headings are specific enough to be useful:

    Rather than Use
    Problem Component contamination
    Method Microanalysis of surface contamination
    Conclusion Contaminants found

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    Section 3.3

    Front Matter

    The front matter is the "envelope" of your document. The elements that make up the front matter introduce the reader to the body of your document. They help the reader understand a document's who, what, why, where, and how--the author, problem, argument, organization, and method. This first part of a document is, from the reader's standpoint, the most important. It tells him or her what your topic and purpose are, how your material is arranged, and where to locate items of interest. The front matter of reports, including theses, is enumerated in lowercase roman numerals.

    The following table lists some typical elements contained in the front matter of various documents (y=yes; n=no; s=sometimes).

    Front matter
    Report Article Proposal Memo
    Title y y y y
    Abstract y y y n
    Executive summary s n s n
    Table of contents y n y n
    List of figures y n y n
    List of tables y n y n
    List of terms s s s s
    Acknowledgments s s s n

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    Section 3.3.1

    Title and Title Page

    Begin every technical document except a memorandum with a clear and specific title. Prospective readers may judge whether your document will be worth their time just be reading the title. The subject line of a memo serves as the title.

    Long formal documents have a separate title page. For shorter documents, a title page may be required, optional, or unnecessary, depending on the specific context and conventions in your field.

    A title page should include the title, the author or authors, their affiliation (if appropriate), and the date. It may also include additional information, such as a specific grant or project number.

    See

    Sample Title and Introduction: Astronautical Engineering Design Report

    Sample Title and Introduction: Mechanical Design Report

    Sample Title and Introduction: Biology Report

    Sample Title and Introduction: Information Systems Report

    for sample titles and Research Reports for an example of a formal title page.

    • Use descriptive titles. The title of your document should be detailed enough to give a specific idea of what is covered. This level of specificity is not always easy to achieve. Probably the most common problem with titles is vagueness, as in the following example.

      • Weak

      Solar Absorption by Clouds

      [Although this title identifies the categories treated, it could say more about how these categories are being treated.]

      Improved

      Direct Observation of Excess Solar Absorption by Clouds

      [This expansion of the title makes clear what aspect of solar absorption is being treated in the paper.]

    • Two-part titles are sometimes useful for complex topics. If you are having trouble getting everything into your title, consider a two-part title.

      • Soot Morphology: An Application of Image Analysis in High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy

      [This two-part title states the category of interest, followed by the specific approach of the report.]

    • Avoid noun strings in titles. A common problem with titles is a list of nouns that are hard to sort out. Adding a preposition or two can help resolve this ambiguity.

      • Weak

      Dietary Nitrate and Nitrite Human Cancer Roles

      [The title is ambiguous because it is hard to tell how all the nouns and adjectives are modifying "roles."]

      Improved

      The Roles of Dietary Nitrate and Nitrite in Human Cancer

      [The addition of two prepositions helps to rearrange the title in a much clearer sequence.]

    • On title pages of reports, include the title, author, date, and organization. In reports, the first page is devoted to the title and related information, usually in the following order:

    Report title (generally centered at the top of the page)

    Author's name (generally centered underneath the title)

    Author's organization

    Date of publication

    Receiving agency or organization (if submitted to a sponsor or funding agency)

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    Section 3.3.2

    Abstract

    An abstract is a brief summarizing statement, usually between 75 and 150 words long. It gives the reader a synopsis of the problem, method, results, and conclusions of your document. The abstract takes the form of a paragraph, usually with 5-10 sentences. It appears at the top of a journal article, just under the title, or on the page following the title page of a report. In the latter instance, the abstract appears on a page by itself.

    Abstracts are often collected into volumes and must be able to stand alone. They are read by parties who are trying to decide whether or not to read the main document. Sometimes they are read by people who want to get the big picture before reading the main document. Abstracts can save readers an immense amount of time.

    An abstract includes these elements:

    1. Problem. Note the key topic or problem of your document.

    2. Method. State your main approach to solving the problem.

    3. Results. Provide one or two important results.

    4. Conclusion. Note your main conclusion.

    Descriptive Abstracts

    In descriptive abstracts, which are often written before a project is completed, the emphasis is placed on the problem and method. Such abstracts may be required for conference paper proposals or for progress reports.

    Title: Machine-Intelligent Gust Front Detection

    Doppler weather radar imagery [method] is being used to detect gust fronts [problem] as part of a program at Lincoln Laboratory to anticipate hazardous weather conditions [problem]. The project goal, under contract with the Federal Aviation Administration, is to develop a Machine-Intelligent Gust Front Algorithm (MIGFA) [method] as part of a suite of hazardous-weather detection functions.

    M. W. Merritt et al., "Wind-Sheer Detection with Pencil Beam Radars," Lincoln Laboratory Journal

    Compare this with the example of the informative abstract following.

    Informative Abstracts

    In informative abstracts, which are written after the project has been completed, care is given to providing information on the results and conclusion of the project.

    Title: Machine-Intelligent Gust Front Detection

    Techniques of low-level machine intelligence, originally developed at Lincoln Laboratory to recognize ground vehicles obscured by camouflage and foliage, are being used to detect gust fronts in Doppler weather radar imagery [method and problem]. A Machine-Intelligent Gust Front Algorithm (MIGFA) has been developed [result] as part of a suite of hazardous-weather detection functions being prepared under contract with the Federal Aviation Administration. Initially developed for use with the latest generation Airport Surveillance Radar equipped with a wind shear processor (ASR-9 WSP), MIGFA was deployed for operational testing in Orlando, Florida during the summer of 1992. MIGFA has demonstrated levels of detection performance that have not only markedly exceeded the capabilities of existing gust front algorithms, but are also competing well with human interpreters [result and conclusion].

    --M. W. Merritt et al., "Wind-Sheer Detection with Pencil Beam Radars," Lincoln Laboratory Journal

    Executive Summaries

    Executive summaries may be written to summarize the key questions and findings of documents, mainly reports. They are directed to readers--generally managerial--who will not read further. An executive summary, unlike an abstract, is a document in miniature that may be read in place of the longer document. Executive summaries are placed immediately after the title page of a report. They typically range between 10 and 25 percent of the original document.

    Structure and Content

    The structure of executive summaries is similar to that of abstracts Problem

    Method

    Results

    Recommendations

    About 25 percent of the executive summary is devoted to the problem and method, and the remaining 75 percent is given to the results and recommendations.

    Format

    Presentation of executive summaries is especially important, since speed and the convenience of the reader are the main objects. The material should be organized into enumerated chunks, given descriptive headings,and highlighted. These special formatting characteristics are shown in the following example.

    1. Preventive maintenance at the XYZ plant. The preventive maintenance program at the XYZ plant was rudimentary--still in the early stages of development. Neither its scope nor its procedures had been defined. Accordingly, several plant activities, including systems maintenance, testing, calibration, and operations were routinely carried out with inadequate or no procedures. The instrument calibration program was incomplete and inconsistent, with the exception of the equipment under the control of the Equipment Test and Inspection Group.

    2. Maintenance backlog and funding. The maintenance backlog continued to increase, while there was a decrease . . .
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    Section 3.3.3

    Table of Contents

    Documents longer than ten pages use a table of contents to help the reader move around in the material. Tables of contents are widely used in reports, proposals, and other longer administrative and research documents. They are not used in articles that appear in periodicals. A table of contents is a list of the main subject headings and subheadings of the document. Hence, a table of contents not only helps readers find materials in the report but also outlines the topics of the report. The table of contents is often prepared from the document's outline. A table of contents is an excellent way for the prospective reader to get an overview of the document. The most useful tables of contents are made up of descriptive subject headings. 

    Title: Tailored Strain Field Mixing for Control of
Pollutant Emissions

    

Executive Summary                                                 i
List of Figures                                                  vi
List of Tables                                                 viii
1       Introduction                                              1
        1.1    Project Background and Motivation                  3
        1.2    Team Makeup and Schedule                           4
        1.3    Objectives of the Project                          8
2       Applications for Tailored Strain Field Mixing in Low-
        Emission Gas Turbines                                     9
3       Research Plan                                            14
        3.1    Numerical Simulations of Simplified Model Flows   15
        3.2    Diffusion Flame Experiments                       18
        3.3    Review and Analysis of Mechanisms                 29
4       Work Plan                                                42
5       Conclusions                                              60
References                                                       63
Appendix A: Laboratory Results                                   66

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    Section 3.3.4

    List of Figures

    Readers use the list of figures to locate visual information. The list of figures identifies the titles and locations of visuals (figures, drawings, photos, maps) in administrative or research documents. Articles in periodicals do not use lists of figures. Figures concentrate information in unusual ways and show critical details, configurations, and evidence. Readers often review them independently of other sections of a report. If figures do not accompany your report or article, look for ways to include them.

    Figure titles are capitalized, and figures are numbered consecutively in arabic numbers through the report. In a larger document, the figure number may be in two parts, the first part referring to the section number--for example, "Figure 3-5" for the fifth figure in Chapter 3.

    Be sure the figure captions are descriptive. Rather than "Experimental Setup," say "Experimental Setup of the Model High Pressure Injection Pump." 

    List of Figures
    

Figure 1.      A Standard Nichrome Wire Cutter                     3
Figure 2.      Melting Temperature of Thermoplastics Compared
               with that of Nichrome                               5
Figure 3.      Clamp Geometries for Wire Cutters                  6
Figure 4.      Wire Cutter Testing Apparatus                      8
Figure 5.      Fatigue Life versus Clamp Deflection 
               (T = 6000C)                                       10

    --J. M. Dent, "Strain Cycling of Hot Nichrome Wire"

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    Section 3.3.5

    List of Tables

    The list of tables names and locates any tables in a report or similar document. Figures and tables are not listed together, but the lists follow the same guidelines and use the same format. If the list of tables is short, it can simply be added at the bottom of the page that lists the figures. Like figure titles, table titles are numbered in consecutive order within the report and capitalized.

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    Section 3.3.6

    List of Terms

    Some documents use a significant amount of new terminology, or many acronyms or abbreviations. In such instances, you can make the material easier to read by including a nomenclature list or list of terms in the front matter, on its own page, just after the abstract (for research articles) or just after the lists of figures and tables (for reports and other documents). Sometimes the nomenclature list is a list of frequently used but uncommon acronyms. One useful effect of nomenclature lists is that they help the writer use terminology in a consistent way. 

    List of Terms and Acronyms
    
ai             active ingredient
A              Acre
ACDS           Agricultural Chemicals Development Services, Inc.
ACN            acetonitrile
EBT            Enviro-Bio-Tech, Ltd.
FIFRA          Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
HPLC           high performance liquid chromatography
LOQ            limit of quantitation
PHI            preharvest potential
RAC            Raw Agricultural Commodity
RSTS           Residue Sample Transfer Sheet
UTC            Untreated Control

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    Section 3.3.7

    Acknowledgments

    An acknowledgments section is sometimes included in the front matter of a longer report, thesis, or collection to note the assistance of people whose help was crucial but not extensive enough to warrant their being listed as co-authors. Thesis advisors, technicians, and colleagues who gave advice or time are all candidates for the acknowledgments section.

    This section is often placed just after the list of tables. In articles and shorter reports, acknowledgments may be made in the end matter at the very beginning of the list of references.

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    Section 3.4

    Body

    The body of a document consists of all material necessary for the document to fulfil its explicit and implicit goals of informing or convincing the reader, establishing trust, and documenting actions or procedures.

    The body of a document may include the following sections:

    Introduction

    Background

    Theory

    Design and Decision Criteria

    Materials and Apparatus

    Procedure

    Work Plan

    Results

    Discussion

    Conclusion

    Recommendations

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    Section 3.4.1

    Introduction

    The introduction to your document should lead your readers into your paper and give them an idea of what to expect (also see Forecasting). It should not be simply a restatement of the abstract even though it will contain some of the same material.

    Introductions often do the following:

    • State the subject of your document as clearly as possible

    • Define the problem you are addressing, your approach to the problem, and why this problem is important

    • State the purpose of your document

    • Define the scope of your document

    • Provide necessary and relevant background information

    Because the introduction leads your reader into your document, try to begin with a general statement about the topic before moving on to specific issues. This strategy will help make the topic accessible to your readers, especially those who are not specialists in the field.

    See

    Sample Title and Introduction: Astronautical Engineering Design Report

    Sample Title and Introduction: Mechanical Design Report

    Sample Title and Introduction: Biology Report

    Sample Title and Introduction: Information Systems Report

    for sample titles and introductions.

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    Section 3.4.1.1

    Problem Statement

    See Section 1.3, Problem Statement, for a discussion of the problem statement.

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    Section 3.4.1.2

    Purpose

    An essential element of the introduction to a technical document is a statement of purpose or aim. This statement tells your reader why you are writing the document. Your purpose will be shaped by the problem you have defined. It may also be shaped by previous work on the topic (see Background).

    The aim of this study was to describe the pathways taken by lymph as it flows from tissues of the head to the medial retropharyngeal lymph node, and through the node to the tracheal trunk.

    --Gabrielle Belz and Trevor J. Heath, "Lymph Pathways of the Medial Retropharyngeal Lymph Node in Dogs," Journal of Anatomy

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    Section 3.4.1.3

    Scope

    To be effective, scientific and technical documents have to limit their scope, the depth and breadth of their investigations. A scientific or technical report limits the scope of its discussions in response both to the boundaries of the inquiry itself and to the purpose and expertise of its audience. See Document Density.

    A short statement of the scope of a document, describing what will be discussed, and what will not be discussed is often included as part of the introduction. In the following example, the author narrows the scope of the discussion of neural systems that control locomotion from humans or animals in general to one specific vertebrate, the lamprey.

    Since the late 1960s, my colleagues and I have been attempting to unravel the design of the neural systems that coordinate locomotion in various experimental animals in hopes that this research will help scientists understand some of the intricacies of the human nervous system. Much is yet to be learned, but we have finally produced a blueprint for the neural networks responsible for movement in a simple vertebrate, a type of jawless fish known as a lamprey.

    --Sten Grillner, "Neural Networks for Vertebrate Locomotion," Scientific American

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    Section 3.4.1.4

    Authorization

    Technical documents are often officially commissioned by individuals or groups within an organization. In other cases, foundations awarding grants for scientific research require as part of the grant contract that the recipient write periodic progress reports and a final report. In these cases and others, a specific reference to the authorization of the document is often included as part of the introduction.

    On March 20, 1996, The Research and Development leadership team charged the Small Systems discovery group to assess the feasibility of developing one or more internal cache- servers for the World Wide Web and report back to the Team by August 1996.

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    Section 3.4.1.5

    Sample Title and Introduction: Astronautical Engineering Design Report

    Measurement of Ice Accretion Using Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Techniques

    Aircraft icing remains one of the most severe aviation weather hazards. A system to measure aircraft ice accretion and accretion rate in real time could directly reduce this hazard. Real-time measurement of ice accretion rate can provide the pilot with a quantitative evaluation of icing severity. Therefore, the effectiveness of changes in flight path to minimize ice accretion can be determined. In addition, an automatic measuring system system measuring ice accretion on critical components such as wings, engine inlets, propellers, or rotor blades could be used to automatically activate and optimally control ice protection systems. Although many schemes have been suggested for measuring aircraft ice accretion,1-3 there is still a need for a practical system capable of real-time in situ measurement of ice accretion. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the feasibility and potential performance of an ice detection system using pulsed ultrasonic waves to measure ice thickness over a small transducer mounted flush with the aircraft surface. Since the technique of ultrasonic "pulse-echo" thickness measurement produces a real-time ice thickness signal, the ice accretion rate may be determined by electronically differentiating this thickness measurement with respect to time.

    --J. Hansman, Jr., and M. S. Kirby, "Measurement of Ice Accretion Using Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Techniques," Proceedings, American institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

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    Section 3.4.1.6

    Sample Title and Introduction: Mechanical Design Report

    Measuring the Bending Performance of Fiber-Optic Cable Sheaths

    The ability of fiber-optic cable to resist damage during placement and handling depends on its tensile and bending characteristics. If cables are bent to too small a radius, they will buckle, and the optical fibers can break. Thus, the safe bending radius is an important parameter that influences installation techniques and choice of equipment. A related parameter is bending stiffness. Cables that are too flexible can be accidentally bent to tight radii and fiber damage can occur. On the other hand, stiff cables can be difficult to handle. Clearly, a knowledge of the parameters controlling flexibility and buckling is needed in order to design cables that can resist damage and be handled easily. This paper describes analytical and experimental techniques that may be used to obtain such knowledge.

    A new apparatus has been built to measure the bending moment applied to cables over a large range of curvatures and strains.

    --D. E. Hart et al., "Closed-Loop Shape Control of a Roll-Bending Process," ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control

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    Section 3.4.1.7

    Sample Title and Introduction: Biology Report

    Sperm Selection by Females

    The history of sexual-selection studies reveals an increasing recognition of the active role of females in determining microevolutionary trajectories. Early studies emphasized male tactics such as combat and scramble competition, and doubted the evolutionary significance of female choice. Even after female choice was convincingly documented, its role was believed to be restricted to pre-copulatory phenomena.1-3 Despite an increased recent focus on sperm competition within a female's reproductive tract, the female has typically been viewed as providing the arena of competition, rather than being an active participant in the selective process.4 Our studies of lizards provide the first clear evidence of active selection of sperm by females, in ways that enhance female fitness.

    In the Swedish sand lizards (Lacerta agilis) we have studied, . . .

    --M. Olsson et al., "Sperm Selection by Females," Nature

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    Section 3.4.1.8

    Sample Title and Introduction: Information Systems Report

    A New Procedure for Ensuring Data Integrity in Flight Reservation Systems

    In the current flight reservation system, a remote operator performs 5-15 transactions to arrange a flight reservation before finally sending an "end-transaction" message. This final message serves as a commit message to the server, which then records the transaction to disk and modifies its database. Before the end-transaction message is sent, the reservation data is held on the system's local disk. In the event of a system crash, the main processor (or a lower performance backup processor) reboots and resumes communication with all agents. However, this procedure has no mechanism for dealing with unfinished transactions, and, consequently, a system crash may produce inconsistent data between the remote operator's client and the reservation system's server. [the document's problem statement]

    The airline currently uses three separate procedures to prevent and address these inconsistencies. First, it instructs all agents that when a system crash occurs, they should erase the entire transaction and resubmit it. Second, the airline runs certain consistency check algorithms every night off-line. These algorithms, however, are simply best-guess estimates and will not identify most unfinished transactions. Finally, all reservations, including unfinished transactions, are copied onto magnetic tape. If a customer complains about inconsistency, the airline can check this record.

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    Section 3.4.2

    Background

    Provide enough information in a technical document to allow your reader to understand the specific problem being addressed and to provide a context for your own document. This background information may include (1) a historical summary of the problem being addressed; (2) a brief summary of previous work on the topic, including, if appropriate, relevant theory; and (3) the specific reasons the document is being written.

    In short documents, include background information in the introduction. In longer documents, however, putting some or all of the background information in a separate section with a heading may be more effective. Long and fairly complex reports, especially experimental reports where the purpose of the document is to verify, evaluate, illustrate, or apply one or more theories, often include a separate theory section.

    1.1 Historical Perspective

    Historically, the issue of modes in human computer interaction emerged as more and more functions were added to early word processors, and yet the size of the interface (e.g., number of function keys, screen area, etc.) stayed constant. One solution was to use the same key to engage several commands; this was implemented by providing the user with some mechanism to switch the application from one mode to another. Depending on the mode, hitting the same key would execute different commands. In this paper the term format/data-entry modes is used to describe this type of mode implementation. For example, the vi text editor has two modes of operation: "Command" and "Insert." In "Command" mode, pressing the "x" key will delete a character; in "Insert" mode this action will write the letter "x" on the screen.

    Users of these early applications, however, were not always happy with such mode implementations: errors, or mode-errors, as these were termed by Norman (1981), caused confusion and frustration (Lewis, and Norman, 1983). Tesler (1981) captured this growing frustration in his influential article in Byte magazine and his pointed cry: "don't mode me in." Research on modes in the human computer interaction literature has mostly focused on various implementations for the mode switching mechanism (Monk, 1986; Thimbleby, 1982). The problem, nevertheless, has not disappeared: designing efficient modes and switching mechanisms continues to be part of any human-computer interface.

    The same growing pains are now shared by designers and operators of supervisory control systems. Since most supervisory control systems are managed via a computer, format/data-entry modes for input of information and display switching are heavily used. But in most supervisory control systems there is also another type of mode: one that is used for controlling the process. This unique mode is the method used for engaging various control behaviors (e.g., reverse/drive gears in a car). In this paper, the term control modes is used to describe this type of implementation.

    --A. Degani et al., "Mode Usage in Automated Cockpits: Some Initial Observations," Proceedings of the International Federation for Automatic Control (IFAC)

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    Section 3.4.3

    Theory

    In long and fairly complex reports and articles, especially theoretical and experimental reports where the purpose of the document is to apply, verify, or illustrate one or more theories, include a separate section presenting relevant theoretical formulae and the techniques by which any experimental results are predicted. When introducing equations, be sure to define all symbols used in them.

    Attitude Display Implementation

    The graphics display created for this experiment presented attitude information to the pilot in the HMD [helmet-mounted display]. For the purpose of the experiment, no other information (e.g., airspeed, altitude) was presented during the actual data collection. The attitude display consisted of a pitch ladder, velocity vector symbol, and waterline symbol (fig. 3).

    With the conformal attitude presentation, the appearance of the displayed information was dependent on the head position of the pilot. The displayed horizon line of the attitude symbology, if it was in view, would always overlay the horizon of the outside scene. If the line of sight of the pilot was not aligned with the body axis of the airplane, the attitude of the airplane . . . could not always be easily obtained from the displayed symbology.

    With the body-axis concept, no matter which direction the pilot moved his head, the display appeared as if the pilot was looking directly out the front of the airplane. In essence, the body-axis concept was analogous to physically mounting a HUD [head-up display] to the helmet. With this concept, the pilot could always directly determine the attitude of the airplane. However, in situations where the line of sight of the pilot was not aligned with the body axis of the airplane, the displayed horizon line of the attitude symbology, if it was in view, would not overlay the horizon of the outside scene.

    --D. Jones et al., "Concepts for Conformal and Body-Axis Attitude Information for Spatial Awareness Presented in a Helmet-Mounted Display," National Aeronautics and Space Administration

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    Section 3.4.4

    Design and Decision Criteria

    Include design and decision criteria in feasibility reports, recommendation reports, proposals, and other documents that are concerned with the possible design of a product or, in some cases, a future course of action.

    Design criteria are the explicit goals that a project must achieve in order to be successful. In recommendation and feasibility reports, especially, the design and decision criteria determine the document's final recommendation for action. Managers use these criteria as their basic tool in evaluating a project's potential for success and how well it fits into the goals of the organization. Experts need explicit design and decision criteria in order to evaluate recommended designs of devices and test procedures.

    Design criteria can be divided into primary and secondary criteria. Primary criteria are those that constitute a successful project; the project will be unsuccessful if it does not meet these goals. Secondary criteria are those features that are highly desirable but not absolutely essential. Separating primary and secondary criteria establishes a clear hierarchy in design choices. Often, implementing one criterion makes the implementation of another infeasible or costly, or a secondary criterion may be sacrificed in favor of a primary criterion.

    Make your design criteria short but as specific as possible. Avoid vague language. List your primary criteria first; then list the secondary criteria. Often design criteria are best displayed in bulleted lists, with short titles preceding the explanation. These titles may then be used later in the document to refer to the specific criteria being discussed. If you number your criteria, avoid referring to them later solely by number, a practice that often confuses readers. Use tables to show and summarize the relative effectiveness of different implementations in comparison with your design criteria.

    4.0 Design Criteria

    The online shopping system must possess the following features:

    • Real time transactions of food, books and notes. The system will enable real-time purchases of meals through university ID cards, textbooks and supplies either through ID cards or through the campus network, and purchase and delivery of online course notes through the campus network.

    • Real-time debiting and crediting of accounts. At the time of purchase, the system will debit the user's account for the amount of the sale and credit the appropriate vendor's account.

    • Authentication of user and server. The system server will always authenticate both the user to the server and the server to the user.

    • Data security. All sensitive data must be encrypted before being passed between the client and server; no sensitive data will be sent through the network in clear text.

    In addition, the system should, if possible, possess the following additional features:

    • Compatibility with existing browsers. Users should be able to access the system using any commonly available network browser.

    • Direct inventory interfaces. The system should be able to interface directly with the various inventory systems of the vendors to allow real-time authentication that the item is in stock and, when the transaction is completed, removal of the item from vendor's current inventory.

    In the foregoing example, the first primary criteron describes the essential operation of the system. The second, third, and fourth primary criteria list features that are necessary for the system to operate successfully. Two secondary criteria are then listed as desirable additional features.

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    Section 3.4.5

    Materials and Apparatus

    In documents that describe an experiment or other procedure, list all hardware and software in sufficient detail for the the reader to reproduce the process.

    Describe equipment and software specific to the procedure. If appropriate, give the model or version numbers of major items of equipment. In many cases, essential information on materials and apparatus can be most effectively presented in a table.

    In short documents, describe materials and apparatus as part of the procedures section. If appropriate, mark the description with its own subheading. In longer documents or in documents reporting studies where the materials were a crucial element, put the description in a separate section with its own heading.

    Make descriptions of apparatus in the body of your document relatively brief. Put lengthy descriptions of materials and apparatus in one or more appendixes, referring to these descriptions in the main text.

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    Section 3.4.6

    Procedure

    Describe in detail experiments or other methods of collecting data. The purpose of the procedure section is to allow a reader of the report to reproduce the experiment or data collection process.

    The procedure section should be written in narrative form with illustrations of all test setups and procedures included within the text (see Integrating Graphics and Text).

    As in all narratives, organize the material to follow the actual sequence of events. Separate each group of actions into one or more paragraphs, and describe each discrete action in one or more sentences.

    List all materials and apparatus used in the procedures in sufficient detail that a reader could reproduce the experiment.

    Experimental Procedures

    CNBr mapping was performed on immunoprecipitated pleckstrin which was gel-purified by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A gel slice containing the phosphopleckstrin was mixed with 50 mM ammonium carbonate (pH 8.5), 0.1% SDS, 1% mercaptoethanol. Pleckstrin contained in the eluate was passed through glass wool, trichloroacetic acid-precipitated, washed twice with a 50:50 mixture of cold ethanol:ether, and then vacuum-dried. The sample was resuspended in 30 µl of 50 mg/ml CNBr in 70% formic acid and incubated at room temperature for 1 h. At this point, the digest was lyophilized with 1 ml of distilled water and again vacuum-dried. When noted, the CNBr fragments were further digested by incubating them overnight in the dark at room temperature in 30 µl of 10 mg/ml iodosobenzoate (IBZO) in 80% acetic acid with 4 M guanidine HCl(26). All samples were then lyophilized with 1 ml of distilled water, vacuum-dried an additional three times, and fractionated on a Tricine gel(27).

    --S. Abrams et al., "Protein Kinase C Regulates Pleckstrin by Phosphorylation of Sites Adjacent to the N-terminal Pleckstrin Homology Domain," Journal of Biological Chemistry

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    Section 3.4.7

    Work Plan

    Include a work plan, sometimes called a project plan, as a separate section in all lengthy proposals. Preliminary project plans are also sometimes appropriate in feasibility and recommendation reports. In addition, most progress reports refer to all or part of previously existing project plans.

    A project plan outlines in specific detail how a project will be conducted, who will work on which part, and when and in what order each part will be accomplished. It is similar to a procedure section but differs in that it describes future rather than past actions. Most project plans include the following elements:

    • A short description of the project's objective

    • A list of personnel participating in the project

    • A list of all equipment and facilities to be used in the project

    • A breakdown of the project into specific tasks, with indications of which tasks are dependent upon the completion of others

    • A schedule indicating when each task will be started and when it will be completed and who will perform it; this information may be represented as an annotated bar chart

    • A budget

    3.0 Work Plan
    3.1 Description of Project
        The project is to design a new online shopping server to be
        used on the university network by authenticated students,
        faculty, and staff.  The server must support meal-card
        transactions, bookstore purchases, and online purchase of
        course notes.

    3.2 Team Members
        Denzeel Simon, Jill Broadstreet, Domingo Sarmiento

    3.3 Equipment 
        3.3.1   Two Standard workstations with a minimum of 32K
                RAM and 4 GB of hard-disk storage
        3.3.2   Standard card encoder
        3.3.3   Two card readers
        3.3.4   Bookstore and dining hall inventory software

    3.4 Tasks, Assignments, and Schedules
        3.4.1   Research existing electronic shopping technology for
                effectiveness, ease of use, and security
        Jan. 3-17: Simon, Sarmiento

        3.4.2   Outline the specific modular components of the
                system
                Jan. 10-17: Broadstreet    

    3.5 Develop draft specifications of each module
        Jan. 18-Feb. 14: Broadstreet, Simon, Sarmiento

        3.5.1   Review draft specifications
                Feb. 15: Broadstreet, Simon, Sarmiento

        3.5.2   Complete final specifications
                Feb. 22: Broadstreet

        3.5.3   Write code for encryption/authentication modules
                Feb. 25-Apr. 3: Sarmiento

        3.5.4   Write code for client browser modules, payment
                switch modules, and inventory modules
                Mar.4-Apr. 15: Broadstreet, Simon

        3.5.5   Test and debug each module
                Apr. 18-May 10: Broadstreet, Simon, Sarmiento

        3.5.6   Test and debug integrated system
                May 11-June 30: Broadstreet, Simon

        3.5.7   Write technical documentation
                May 11-June 30: Sarmiento

        3.5.8   Site-test system
                June 30-Aug. 14: Sarmiento

        3.5.9   Review and evaluate site tests
                Aug. 14-Sep. 1: Broadstreet, Simon, Sarmiento

        3.5.10  Revise system based on site tests
                Sep. 1-Oct. 15: Broadstreet, Simon

        3.5.11  Revise technical documentation and complete online
                end-user documentation
                Oct. 16-Nov. 30: Sarmiento

        3.5.12 Release
                Dec. 15

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    Section 3.4.8

    Results

    In the results section of a report, describe all appropriate information produced by the research procedures. Simply present data and estimates of their accuracy. Save the explanation and interpretation of these findings for the discussion section, which usually follows the results section. In short documents, however, the results and discussion sections may be combined into a single section.

    Results sections make extensive use of graphs and figures to present data effectively. Order information by its importance to your audience's purpose in reading the document. State all significant findings in the text, referring to tables and graphs displaying all significant data. If the study has produced a large amount of raw data, do not present all of it in the results section. Instead, present only the information most appropriate to your audience's purpose in reading the document, summarizing other key information in graphs and figures. If appropriate, include your raw data in an appendix, referring to them within your text.

    Summation of Results

    The quantitive results of this study favored the body-axis concept. (See Fig. 5.) Although no statistically significant differences were noted for either the pilots' understanding of roll attitude or target position, the pilots made pitch judgment errors three times more often with the conformal display. The subjective results showed the body-axis display did not cause attitude confusion, a prior concern with this display. In the posttest comments, the pilots overwhelmingly selected the body-axis display as the display of choice.

    --D. Jones et al., "Concepts for Conformal and Body-Axis Attitude Information for Spatial Awareness Presented in a Helmet-Mounted Display," National Aeronautics and Space Administration

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    Section 3.4.9

    Discussion

    Explain in the discussion section of your document information presented in the results section, commenting on significant data produced by the study. In writing a discussion section, keep the following points in mind.

    • Identify significant patterns in the data and relationships between variables. Offer tentative explanations for these patterns and relationships.

    • Compare the actual data produced with any predictions or questions posed in the introduction or theory section of the document.

    • If any of the results differ from the expected results, offer possible explanations for the discrepancies. Present the most probable explanations first and the least probable last.

    • Consider how well the data answer any questions posed in the document's introduction. Do the results answer the questions completely? If not, explain what questions still need to be addressed and give possible explanations why the results may be inconclusive.

    • Qualify the scope of your explanations, discussing in what cases your explanations apply and in what cases they may not.

    • Organize your material in order of importance to your reader's purpose in using the document.

    Discussion

    The major finding of our current work is that inhibition of SL synthesis and degradation have opposite effects on the formation or stabilization of collateral axonal branches. In contrast, no effect is observed on the formation of the parent axon during its emergence from the cell body. The fact that inhibition of SL synthesis and degradation affect growth in hippocampal neurons is not entirely unexpected. SLs have been implicated in a variety of cellular phenomena, including cell-cell interaction, differentiation, and adhesion (7, 34). Addition of exogenous SLs, particularly GMs, has dramatic effects on neuronal growth in primary neuronal cultures and in neuroblastoma (8). It has also been demonstrated that accumulation of SLs in animal models of lysosomal storage disorders is accompanied by abnormal appearance of ectopic dendrites at the axonal hillock (35). Manipulation of endogenous SLs in hippocampal neurons might therefore be predicted to affect growth, as has been observed in cells and tissues of non-neuronal origin (16, 17, 18, 36, 37) and in neuroblastoma (38). However, ours is the first study that implicates SL metabolism in a particular facet of neuronal growth, namely collateral branch formation or stabilization.

    --Andreas Schwarz et al., "A Regulatory Role for Sphingolipids in Neuronal Growth," Journal of Chemical Biology

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    Section 3.4.10

    Conclusion

    Include a conclusion as the final part of the body of your document. Because some readers of documents, particularly managers, will sometimes not read the entire document but, instead, focus on the conclusion, this part of the document should summarize all essential information necessary for your audience's purpose. In your conclusion:

    • Relate your findings to the general problem and any specific objectives posed in your introduction.

    • Summarize clearly what the report does and does not demonstrate.

    • Include specific recommendations for action or for further research. Sometimes these recommendations will constitute a separate section of a document.

    Sample Short Conclusion: Biology

    Sample Long Conclusion: Aero-Astro Engineering

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    Section 3.4.10.1

    Sample Short Conclusion: Biology

    In conclusion, we have demonstrated that SLs, particularly glyco-SLs, are involved in the formation or stabilization of axonal branches in cultured hippocampal neurons. We are currently examining the levels and types of SLs synthesized during development, and their targeting to axonal or dendritic domains, in order to distinguish between the various possible molecular mechanisms that could account for these effects.

    --Andreas Schwarz et al., Journal of Chemical Biology

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    Section 3.4.10.2

    Example Long Conclusion: Aero-Astro Engineering

    The preliminary analysis discussed here is the result of an observational study. This methodology poses some limitations for identifying cause-effect relationships--mainly that the factors are not directly manipulated by the experimenter (Cook and Campbell, 1979). Bearing in mind this limitation, one may interpret the initial results presented here as suggesting the following:

    First, within the possible mode space there are certain mode combinations that are frequently used. Pilots use several standard and preferred paths for mode transitions during the progress of the flight. Second, these mode transitions are influenced by the aircraft altitude and two environmental factors: type of ATC clearance, and the type of ATC facility (Approach Control, En Route Control, etc.) providing these clearances. We offer several possible explanations for this. (1) Altitude is a primary factor with respect to both short term (tactical) and long term (strategic) activity on the flight deck; and therefore, directly or indirectly it influences mode transitions; (2) ATC clearances prompt mode transitions. This comes as no surprise, since modes are a method for executing the tasks directed by ATC; (3) ATC facilities vary in the type and rate of clearances. For example, ATC controllers in an Approach Control facility issue mostly tactical clearances (e.g., maintain heading of 280 degrees, descend to 6000 feet) at a high frequency while demanding a quick response. In contrast, ATC controllers in En Route Control facility issue mostly strategic clearances (e.g., a complete route of flight between several waypoints). Evidence on the influence of both ATC Facility and clearance type on pilots' mode engagement was also found by Casner (in press).

    Taken as a whole, these preliminary findings point to the important relationship between the modes structure of the automated system, and the task demands coming from the operational environment. The results of this relationship, or interaction, are the mode transitions in the system (see Figure 4).

    Understanding both the automated system and the operating environment, as well as their interaction, appears valuable for designing new automatic flight control systems. This may be particularly important as future aircraft and the next-generation ATC system are likely to be very different from today's.

    --A. Degani et al., "Mode Usage in Automated Cockpits: Some Initial Observations," Proceedings of the International Federation for Automatic Control (IFAC)

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    Section 3.4.11

    Recommendations

    Include appropriate and specific recommendations as part of your conclusion or, in feasibility and recommendation reports, as a separate section preceding the conclusion.

    Many types of scientific and technical documents conclude by pointing to further action. Research reports often recommend further studies to confirm tentative explanations or to answer questions presented in the discussion section. Feasibility and recommendation reports always have one or more specific recommendations as the principal aim of the document.

    Recommendations should always be specific and appropriate to the document's audience. Separate each specific recommendation. Often authors present recommendations in bulleted or numbered lists. Organize recommendations either in the order of importance or in the logical order of development.

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    Section 3.5

    End Matter

    End matter consists of material outside the main body of the document that may furnish useful references to the reader. Three of the most common types of end matter are

    References

    Appendixes

    Indexes

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    Section 3.5.1

    References

    Include as part of the end matter a list of sources used in your report.

    Scientific and technical documents include a list of outside sources used in a report. The title of the section, its exact form, and selection criteria for materials differ from discipline to discipline. For more information, see Citing Sources and Listing References.

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    Section 3.5.2

    Appendixes

    In one or more appendixes, include materials that are not essential parts of your main text but that will provide useful reference information to readers seeking more detail.

    The following list presents some typical material that is often included in an appendix.

    Detailed explanations and elaborations too technical for the main text

    Additional diagrams

    Additional tables summarizing data

    Long lists

    Experimental protocols or survey questions

    Selected computer code directly relevant to discussions in the main body

    Guidelines for Appendixes

    • Avoid using appendixes as dumping grounds for raw data that you will be unable to incorporate in the body of the paper.

    • If you have more than one appendix, use letters to label them (Appendix A, Appendix B, and so forth).

    • Give each appendix an appropriate title.

    • Place one specific kind of information in each appendix.

    • Begin each appendix on a new page.

    • If appropriate, identify and summarize the contexts of an appendix in a short summary paragraph.

    • Refer to each appendix in the body of the document.

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    Section 4.1

    Reasons for Using Graphics

    Graphics in written and oral reports are invaluable aids to your audience because they condense text, clarify relationships, and highlight patterns. Good graphics display the significance of your data (which may be more exactly displayed in a table) and allow the reader to follow your discussion. Drafting graphics may also be a very effective way to help you draft a long written report or oral presentation.

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    Section 4.1.1

    Condensing Text

    Use graphics to condense complicated textual content for your audience, as, for example, when you are describing an experimental apparatus, as shown in Figure 1.

    Figure 1

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    Section 4.1.2

    Clarifying Relationships

    Use graphics to clarify relationships among complicated data sets. Converting Table 1 to a chart (Figure 2) helps draw out the results of a study of linguistic groups.

    Table 1. First languages of the Finno-Ugric peoples of the former Soviet Union.

    Ethnicity Own Ethnic Language Russian Other
    Estonian 95.46% 4.38% 0.16%
    Udmurt 69.64% 30.04% 0.31%
    Mari 80.81% 18.80% 0.38%
    Komi 70.39% 29.45% 0.14%
    Nenets 77.11% 18.09% 4.80%
    Evenki 30.42% 28.47% 41.11%
    Khanty 60.45% 38.80% 0.74%
    Mansi 37.05% 61.99% 0.96%
    Selkup 47.65% 50.55% 1.80%
    Saami 42.17% 56.46% 1.38%
    Yenets 45.45% 38.28% 16.27%
    Komi-Perm 70.06% 29.69% 0.25%
    Karelian 47.77% 51.84% 0.39%
    Finnish 34.55% 54.55% 10.90%
    Veps 50.84% 48.52% 0.64%
    Livonian 43.81% 14.60% 41.59%

    --Erika Mitchell, Research Notebook (based on data from "Vsesoiuznaia perepis' naseleniia 1989 goda," Vestnik statistiki 1990))

    Figure 2

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    Section 4.1.3

    Highlighting Patterns

    Use graphics to highlight patterns in your data that may not be immediately evident in your text. Figure 3 displays at a glance the effects of exercise on heartbeat in an experiment to study energy expenditure in a partial gravity environment, such as an orbiting space station.

    Steady-state energy consumption is achieved after approximately two minutes of constant and consistent exercise. During the first two minutes of exercise, a "ramp-up" pattern is seen, as shown in Figure 3.

    Figure 3

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    Section 4.2.1

    Working Drawings

    Working drawings may be used to give detailed descriptions of the current state of your experimental apparatus and as common graphics in oral design reviews.

    Working drawings may be highly detailed and may present exact specifications for the construction of apparatus. Identify working drawings with an explicit title and the date. Be sure to show tolerances and exact measurements and, if necessary, a scale of measurement on all figures.

    Figure 4

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    Section 4.2.2

    Tables

    Tables present data in a highly condensed form. Tables present data more exactly than a graph, but they do not readily display the trends within your data. (They should rarely be used in an oral presentation--rely on figures instead.)

    Every table is identified in a written report by a number and a title, placed above the table. In contrast, the number and title of a figure in a report are usually given below the figure.

    The parts of a table include

    • Title and number (above the table).

    • Boxhead, the horizontal region across the top of a table containing column headings with units of measurement clearly identified.

    • Stub, the vertical column to the far left of a table in which you list the various line headings that identify the horizontal rows of data in the body of the table.

    • Body, all the data, presented in columns below the boxhead, describing items in the stub. If you want the reader to see a comparison between any items in a table, then place those items close to one another.

    If any table or figure is taken from another source, proper credit must be given in a source note below the table or figure.

    Table 2. The volume of solution in ml delivered from a random sample of 1.00 ml capacity tuberculin syringes with Luer slip tips and 9.5 mm 27 gauge needles with intradermal bevels.

    OBS GRADUATION
    0.05 ml 0.10 ml 0.15 ml 0.20 ml 0.25 ml 1.00 ml
    1 0.0466 0.0895 0.1405 0.1949 0.2429 1.0012
    2 0.0474 0.0998 0.1505 0.2033 0.2514 0.9994
    3 0.0487 0.0972 0.1473 0.1978 0.2451 1.0052
    4 0.0505 0.0935 0.1472 0.1978 0.2502 1.0016
    5 0.0442 0.0935 0.1443 0.1982 0.2450 1.0031

    --Seth Frisbie, The Determination of Total Dissolved Inorganic Carbon in Pure Systems

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    Section 4.2.3

    Bar Graphs

    Bar graphs display relationships among data by means of vertical or horizontal bars of different different lengths. Sometimes a single bar of a set height is used to break down percentages of the whole, in much the same fashion as a pie graph.

    Single Bar Graph

    Single bar graphs visualize the effects of varying limiting conditions on one particular object of study, as in Figure 5, where heart rate is shown under various burden conditions of exercise.

    Figure 5

    Multiple Bar Graph

    Multiple bar graphs visualize the different objects of study under one particular limiting condition, as in Figure 6, where three items are compared over time.

    Figure 6

    Stacked Bar Graph

    Stacked bar graphs visualize various items as percentages of the whole for ease of comparison and contrast. Figure 7 is a single bar graph showing percentages of one particular object of study. (Compare this figure with Figure 11, a pie graph drawn from the same data.) Figure 2 is an example of a multiple stacked bar graph where various items are broken down into percentages of the whole for comparison.

    Figure 7

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    Section 4.2.4

    Line Graphs

    Line graphs visualize trends among dense data sets, which are sometimes listed in an accompanying table in a report. Data points are plotted with relation to a vertical axis showing the dependent variable and a horizontal axis showing the independent variable. A line is then drawn through these points to display significant trends, as shown in Figure 8, an example of a single line graph.

    Figure 8

    The intersection of the x and y axes is always the zero point. Put a break point on the y axis if the data span a range too large to fit in your graph, as shown in Figure 9.

    Figure 9

    If for some reason zero is not the starting point for your axes (because the values are too high, for example), then state that explicitly in prose within the figure or indicate it on the axes themselves.

    To use line graphs effectively, follow these guidelines:

    • Label each axis clearly and show units of measurement by means of regularly spaced ticks.

    • Show significant data points plotted between the x and y axes clearly. If more than one set of data is plotted, you may want to distinguish data points by means of different symbols (circle, square, triangle), which are then identified in an accompanying key or legend.

    • Keep your graph clear of excessive grid lines which may obscure your data points or curves.

    • Clearly label plotted lines.

    Multiple Line Graphs

    Multiple line graphs show comparison between two (or more) data sets for the same value, as shown in Figure 10, in which data for the item of study in Figure 8 are not compared with data for another item.

    Figure 10

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    Section 4.2.5

    Pie Graphs

    Pie graphs pictorially represent percentages of the whole by showing these percentages as "slices" of a complete circle (the complete circle represents 100 percent of whatever item or quantity you are discussing). Be sure that the percentages of the whole represented by the slices total 100 percent.

    The number of percentage slices drawn on a pie graph may vary. Too many segments may make your graph unreadable; too few segments may make it useless for discussion. A carefully sized and composed pie graph will permit you to include more than the usually recommended five items, affording you greater scope in making comparisons, as shown in Figure 11.

    Figure 11

    Label all sections clearly with the percentage and the name of the item being depicted.

    Pie graphs give a striking and quick representation of simplified data. They are most often used before nonexpert audiences because the relationships of data are not highly detailed.

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    Section 4.2.6

    Illustrations

    Illustrations can provide your reader with a large amount of information about an object or topic in a very small space. An illustration can accurately depict the form of an object, help the reader to visualize how the object functions, or show the relationship of one object to another. It allows you to focus your audience's attention precisely on the details that you are describing, as shown in Figure 12.

    Figure 12

    To use illustrations effectively, follow these guidelines:

    • Choose appropriate objects or topics to illustrate. Illustrations are excellent forms of graphics for situations in which color distinctions are limited or irrelevant; if color distinctions are the focus of your graphic, you may find a photograph to be more effective. On the other hand, if you will be printing your document in black and white or photocopying it onto acetates for overhead projection, an illustration may result in a graphic that is clearer and easier to interpret.

    • Make your illustrations clear and easy to understand. Incorporate only those details that will be relevant.

    • If the size of the elements in your illustration is relevant to your discussion, provide the scale for your readers.

    • Label the elements of your illustration clearly.

    • Identify each illustration with a figure number and a caption.

    Figure 13 presents several overviews of an object, illustrating the overall form of the object as well as the relationship of parts to whole.

    Figure 13

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    Section 4.2.7

    Diagrams

    Diagrams are used to show the relationships between several objects or to portray the function of an object. Diagrams are similar to illustrations in that they are often pictorial representations of an object, but they are often more abstract than illustrations. For instance, the elements that make up a diagram may not be drawn to scale with respect to each other; rather than give an accurate picture of the appearance of an object, the goal of a diagram is to help the reader understand how the elements in the diagram are connected.

    Figure 14 is an abstract, pictorial diagram visualizing a transfer line setup connecting a holding tank to a tank car.

    Figure 14

    Figure 15 is a pictorial representation of an experimental design for a coolable nozzle, showing the interrelationships of parts.

    Figure 15

    To use diagrams effectively, follow these guidelines:

    • Keep your diagrams simple. Include only those details that will be relevant to your discussion.

    • Label the elements of your diagram clearly.

    • Identify each diagram with a figure number and a caption.

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    Section 4.2.8

    Photographs

    Photographs can provide an overall view of an object, especially when the object is new or strange, or they may record results that rely on visual inspection, such as X-rays or the effects of destructive testing for failure in materials. To use photographs in a report effectively, you must

    • Frame your photograph to include only the elements you need to discuss. Extraneous items will only confuse the reader.

    • Use only clearly focused photographs, free of shadows. Poor photography frequently mars otherwise effective report presentations. Remember, photographs are hard to reproduce well in printed reports, so you may want to limit your use of them.

    • Provide a way of showing relative size in a photograph (unless your photograph is of something very large-scale, such as a landscape or a whole factory). Show relative size in a photograph by placing some commonplace object of fixed size (such as a ruler, a coin or a pencil) next to the object being photographed.

    • Identify each photograph with a figure number and a caption, as you would any other kind of figure in a written report.

    If you need photographs for an oral presentation, use a 35-millimeter projector to display them. Photographs transferred to overhead acetates by photocopying machines are usually too dark to be easily viewed by the audience.

    Figure 16

    Figure 17

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    Section 4.2.9

    Exploded Views

    Exploded views present the interrelated parts of a complex object in near proximity so that your audience can see at a glance the total effect of the placement or interaction of part to whole, as shown in Figure 18.

    Figure 18

    All parts of an object in an exploded view are identified by name. The figure as a whole is given a number and a caption in a written report.

    Figures of this type are useful for quick, at-a-glance introduction of complex objects (sometimes, the point of an exploded view is to show just how complex a familiar object can be). Exploded views do not allow you to focus on parts of the apparatus, however. Therefore, combine this kind of illustration with more detailed illustrations for a complete analysis.

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    Section 4.2.10

    Schematic Diagrams

    As with other kinds of diagrams, which stress the general or abstract over the realistic, schematic diagrams employ highly specialized, technical symbols to depict the workings of a sytem or apparatus, as shown in Figure 19.

    Figure 19

    Schematic diagrams should only be used to communicate with a technical and expert audience.

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    Section 4.2.11

    Flowcharts

    A flowchart is traditionally defined as a detailed diagram of the operations or equipment through which material passes. But a flowchart can be any kind of schematic diagram which shows pictorially or by means of symbolic representations a sequence of operations for any process. A common form of flowchart depicts the sequence of subroutines and flow of information within computer programs, as shown in Figure 20.

    Figure 20

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    Section 4.2.12

    Timetables (Gantt charts)

    Timetables, or Gantt charts, give a visual presentation of the relative timing of the separate tasks that make up a unified project. With just a glance at a timetable, a reader can ascertain the variety of tasks involved in a project and how the tasks are related chronologically, as shown in Figure 21.

    Figure 21

    There are a variety of software programs you can use to generate and update your timetables automatically.

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    Section 4.3.1

    Accurate Labeling

    All parts of figures and graphs must be labeled accurately. Use callouts (clarifying text connected to relevant part of figure by means of an arrow) to name the parts of your figure or data curves on a graph. Text should be printed on the horizontal when possible. Figures 22 and 23 provide examples.

    Figure 22

    Figure 23

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    Section 4.3.2

    Numbering Graphics

    Give all figures and tables in written reports are an identifying number and title so you can refer to them within reports by means of that number. Number your figures sequentially, starting from 1. In large reports with many sections, use a double numeration system. In this system, the number consists of the number of the section in which the graphic appears plus the sequential number of the graphic within that section (for example, "Fig. 4.3"). This will prevent you from having to give figures confusingly high reference numbers. In general, number and title go below graphs and figures but above tables. In an oral report, figures and graphs need not be numbered. Give every viewgraph in an oral report a title placed at the top of the viewgraph.

    Also give numbers and titles to figures and graphs placed in an appendix to a report. Use a number that is a composite of the appendix number or letter and the sequential number of the figure.

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    Section 4.3.3

    Integrating Graphics and Text

    Place each graphic within the text of your report as close as possible to its text reference. This integration of text and figure will help your reader understand the content and argument of your report, as, for example, when you are explaining an apparatus or discussing results. Avoid referring to a page number for any graphic: it is likely that published reports will not maintain the integrity of your pagination.

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    Section 5.1

    Paragraph Unity

    Unify paragraphs by making every sentence contribute to a controlling idea, which is usually stated in a topic sentence.

    In the following paragraph, which is part of a discussion of recent advances in optical astronomy, the topic sentence is the second sentence. It introduces the controlling idea of the paragraph--"adaptive optics." Note how each sentence of the paragraph supports that idea.

    The latest electronic innovation, still under development, is called "adaptive optics." Adaptive optics is an electronic feedback mechanism capable of correcting for the distorting effects of the earth's atmosphere and thus allowing much sharper images of astronomical objects. The earth's atmosphere is constantly shimmering, because of moving pockets of air and changes in temperature, and such shimmering causes passing light rays to bend one way then another. In effect, the shifting atmosphere acts as a rapidly changing lens, smearing out and defocusing images. In adaptive optics, motorized cushions are placed behind the telescope's secondary mirror and constantly reshape the mirror's surface to counteract the defocusing effect of the atmosphere. The cushions are given instructions by a computer, which analyzes the image of a "guide star" in the same field of view as whatever the telescope is looking at. With no atmospheric distortion, the image of a star should be a single point of light. By analyzing how the actual image of the guide star differs from a point, the computer can infer the distortion of the atmosphere and tell the cushions how to alter the mirror to bring the guide star, and all the objects near it, back into sharp focus. Corrections must be made rapidly, because the atmosphere is rapidly shifting. In practice, the computer will analyze the image of a guide star and give new instructions to the reshaping cushions every 0.01 to 0.1 seconds.

    --Alan Lightman, Ancient Light

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    Section 5.1.1

    Topic Sentences

    State the central idea of a paragraph in a topic sentence. The other sentences should elaborate on the topic sentence with relevant information and evidence. Topic sentences are a key element in developing unified and coherent paragraphs.

    Although the topic sentence may appear anywhere in the paragraph, it is most often the first sentence. A topic statement may also contain a transitional element from the previous paragraph.

    In the first paragraph of the next example, the topic sentence is the first sentence, stating the subject. However, a paragraph can also lead up to the topic sentence, as in the second paragraph. When a topic sentence concludes a paragraph, it receives extra emphasis and can also serve as a summary or conclusion.

    Time became a key word in the language of physics during the seventeenth century. Isaac Newton wove the passage of time directly into his equations, as in force = mass × acceleration. Today, it is difficult for any physicist to examine the universe without thinking of time in mich the same way as the illustrious Briton did more than 300 years ago. Most of the laws of physics continue to be written in the style of Newton; they are designed to show how things change from one moment to the next. Each event under study, such as the path of a ball thrown into the air or the thermodynamics of a melting ice cube, is broken down into a series of freeze-frames that, run like a movie, show how nature works.

    Newton had placed a clock upon the mantel of the universe. This Newtonian timepiece ticked and ticked, chiming like some cosmic Big Ben, in step with all the celestial inhabitants, no matter what their speed or position. That meant that a clock situated at the edge of the universe or zipping about the cosmos at high velocities would register the same passage of time, identical minutes and identical seconds, as an earthbound clock. More important, the Newtonian clock was never affected by the events going on around it. Time was aloof and absolute, alike for all as galaxies collided, solar systems formed, and moons orbited planets. Time led an independent existence, separate from nature itself.

    --Marcia Bartusiak,"When the Universe Began, What Time Was It?" Technology Review

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    Section 5.2

    Paragraph Coherence

    A coherent paragraph does more than simply lay down the facts--it organizes them, creating a logical argument that makes sense from idea to idea. Coherent paragraphs have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Elements that contribute to coherence, such as transitional devices, linking pronouns, and repetition of key words, are discussed in the following sections.

    Weak

    Limited investment in the housing sector makes it practically impossible to allocate sufficient resources for urban dwellers' housing needs. A high rate of urban population growth has increased the country's needs for housing. A small group of city officials has laid out a new plan to combat the crisis. A solution to the housing-shortage problem is a vital policy issue here. The housing problem has grown in the last twenty years. [Although related by topic (housing shortage), each sentence makes its own separate point with no link to the sentences before or after. The result is a group of related yet separate ideas instead of one coherent paragraph.]

    Improved

    Limited investment in the housing sector makes it practically impossible to allocate sufficient resources for urban dwellers' housing needs. In fact, the problem has grown in the last twenty years. Because a high rate of urban population growth has increased the country's needs for housing, a solution to the housing-shortage problem is a vital policy issue here. A small group of city officials has laid out a new plan to combat the crisis. [Each separate fact now flows into the next, creating a coherent whole.]

    --Samuel Nunn, "Role of Local Infrastructure Policies and Economic Development Incentives in Metropolitan Interjurisdictional Cooperation," Journal of Urban Planning and Development

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    Section 5.2.1

    Transitional Devices

    Use transitional devices as verbal "bridges" to link one idea to the next. Transitions are crucial to paragraph coherence. They make the difference between abrupt, choppy sentences and seamless prose.

    See Transitional Words and Phrases and Common Transitional Words and Phrases.

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    Section 5.2.1.1

    Transitional Words and Phrases

    Use transitional words and phrases to clarify and smooth the movement from idea to idea. See Common Transitional Words and Phrases for a list of common transitional words and phrases.

    Weak

    Reducing drag in an aerospace vehicle is an important design consideration with financial and operational consequences. Poorly designed rocket fuselages can triple fuel and launch costs. Drag increases stress on key joints. This proposed project will develop a model to reduce aerodynamic drag on the RX100.

    Improved

    Reducing drag in an aerospace vehicle is an important design consideration. For example, poorly designed rocket fuselages can triple fuel and launch costs. Moreover, drag increases stress on key joints. Therefore, this proposed project will develop a model to reduce aerodynamic drag on the RX100.

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    Section 5.2.1.2

    Common Transitional Words and Phrases

    The following list, categorized by type of relationship, provides examples of some common and useful transitional words and phrases.

    • cause and effect: consequently, therefore, accordingly, as a result, because, for this reason, hence, thus

    • sequence: furthermore, in addition, moreover, first, second, third, finally, again, also, and, besides, further, in the first place, last, likewise, next, then, too

    • comparison or contrast: similarly, also, in the same way, likewise, although, at the same time, but, conversely, even so, however, in contrast, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, otherwise, still, yet

    • example: for example, for instance, in fact, indeed, of course, specifically, that is, to illustrate

    • purpose: for this purpose, for this reason, to this end, with this object

    • time or location: nearby, above, adjacent to, below, beyond, farther on, here, opposite to, there, to the south, before, after, later, afterward, immediately, in the meantime, meanwhile, now, since, soon, then, while

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    Section 5.2.3

    Repetition of Key Words

    Use deliberate repetition of key words to emphasize your main points. Use this technique sparingly, however; too much repetition leads to monotony.

    Weak

    This broadcast packet switching should be distinguished from the store-and-forward variety. To handle the demands of growth, our system can be extended using repeaters for signal regeneration, filters for traffic localization, or gateways for internetwork address extension.

    Improved

    This broadcast packet switching should be distinguished from the store-and-forward variety. To handle the demands of growth, our system can be extended using packet repeaters for signal regeneration, packet filters for traffic localization, or packet gateways for internetwork address extension. [The main point, packets, is now highlighted.]

    --R. M. Metcalfe and D. R. Boggs, "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Networks" (modified)

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    Section 5.3

    Paragraph Development

    Develop paragraphs in a variety of patterns that reflect your thinking about the material. As you write the topic sentence and its supporting sentences, look for ways to structure your thinking. Where one author advances his or her material by narrating a series of events, another undertakes a physical description and another undertakes an analysis of the topic. These patterns of paragraph development usually emerge in the process of revision. More than one pattern of development may be used in a series of paragraphs.

    Here are some important modes of paragraph development:

    Exemplification

    Narration

    Process

    Description

    Comparison and contrast

    Analogy

    Cause and effect

    Classification and division

    Definition

    Analysis

    Enumeration

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    Section 5.3.1

    Exemplification

    Use exemplification paragraphs to provide instances that clarify your topic statement. In the following paragraph, the topic sentence is supported in examples that illustrate, support, and clarify the main point.

    Vitamins and minerals can be added to enrich (replace nutrients lost in processing) or fortify (add nutrients not normally present) foods to improve their nutritional quality. Breads and cereals are usually enriched with some B vitamins and iron. Common examples of fortification include the addition of vitamin D to milk, vitamin A to margarine, vitamin C to fruit drinks, calcium to orange juice, and iodide to table salt.

    --P. Insel and W. Roth, Core Concepts in Health

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    Section 5.3.2

    Narration

    Use narration to establish a series of events that tells the reader what happened. Narration follows a chronological pattern of development. It is a convincing mode of paragraph development to the extent that it tells a coherent story. This pattern or time line is usually very easy to understand. In the following narrative, the first narrative paragraph is followed by two descriptive paragraphs. Note the use of transitional words such as thereafter, first, next, and after.

    Containment and Treatment of the Love Canal Landfill Leachate Temporary Treatment Program

    The carbon feasibility studies were completed in October, 1978. Immediately thereafter, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) "Blue Magoo" was dispatched to the site to provide on-site emergency treatment. First, wastewater generated during construction was collected, pH adjusted, clarified, sand filtered, and carbon treated. Next, treated effluent was analyzed and was found to confirm Calgon's study findings. After this process, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation granted a discharge permit on October 27, 1978.

    On October 29, 1978, the EPA Emergency Treatment System was replaced by a larger system provided by Newco Chemical Waste Systems, Inc. and Calgon Corp . . . 

    The two-stage adsorption system, providing ongoing treatment at the Love Canal site, is a skid-mounted system designed for rapid installation. The adsorbers are pressure vessels complete with all process and carbon transfer piping, valving, and instrumentation. Each adsorber holds a full truckload of 9,072 kg (20,000 lb) of granular carbon and can hydraulically process up to 662 l/min (175 gal) of wastewater. When a carbon bed is spent, the spent carbon is pneumatically and hydraulically transferred to . . .

    --W. McDougall and R. A. Fusco, "Containment and Treatment of the Love Canal Landfill Leachate," Journal of the Water Pollution and Control Federation

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    Section 5.3.3

    Process

    Use process in paragraphs to develop sequences that describe how an action is carried out or how something works. The following paragraph shows a typical sequential treatment of a general physical phenomenon. Note the concentration of process verbs such as to find, samples, sums, and provides.

    Ideally, an image should contain a region of high-intensity pixels that form the target, and a low-intensity background. To find the target region, the algorithm first samples the images in overlapping windows and sums the pixel intensities contained in each window. The window with the highest sum is assumed to contain the target, and the average of the remaining windows is assumed to be indicative of the background level. Thus, subtracting the average of the window sums from the highest window sum provides a measure of the target strength over the background noise level. If an image does not contain a target, then the different between the highest sum and the average sum will be very small. The difference will also be small for images containing faint targets and high levels of background noise.

    --M. Menon, E. Boudreau, and P. J. Kolodzy, "An Automatic Ship Classification System for ISAR Imagery," Lincoln Laboratory Journal

    A more rigid process description, filled with technical terminology, may become experimental protocol, as follows:

    Isolation of RNA

    The homogenate was extracted twice at 4°C with buffer-equilibrated phenol; the first extraction was 1 hr. long and the second, 15 min. Two volumes of ethanol:m-cresol (9:1, by volume), added to the aqueous phase, precipitated total RNA overnight at 4°. The RNA precipitate was collected by centrifugation, washed successively with 70% and 95% ethanol, and dried over CaSO4 under vacuum. The RNA was dissolved in 0.015 M NaCl:0.0015 M sodium citrate, pH 7.0, and the absorbance at 260 nm was determined . . .

    --C. M. King et al., "Comparative Adduct Formation of 4-aminobipheynl," Cancer Research

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    Section 5.3.4

    Description

    Use descriptive prose to provide a physical picture or a functional view of the subject. Physical description develops a picture by identifying the shapes, materials, position, and functions of its subject. Such prose often serves as the raw material for more elaborate forms of analytical prose.

    Boundary-Layer Test Section

    The test section (0.86 m × 2.44 m) of the boundary layer tunnel, as shown in Figure 2, is situated between the nozzle and the diffuser. It consists of a flat aluminum test plate, a contoured wall, and two transparent side walls. A bleed-scoop layer at the leading edge of the test plate removes the inlet boundary layer. The contoured wall opposite the test plate generates the required pressure distribution. The two differently-contoured walls used in this investigation generate either squared-off pressure distribution or aft-loaded pressure distribution.

    These distribution shapes . . .

    --O. P. Sharma et al., "Boundary Layer Development on Turbine Airfoil Suction Surfaces," Transactions of the ASME

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    Section 5.3.5

    Comparison and Contrast

    Use comparison and contrast to develop a topic by examining its similarities or dissimilarities to another thing, process, or state. Comparison emphasizes the similarities, contrast the differences. A paragraph may use both comparison and contrast. In the following example, two kinds of electrical cable are compared. The aim here is to convey the superiority of A over B for two categories of performance.

    Coaxial vs. Fiber-Optic Cable: Comparative Cable-Length Performances

    For a number of critical performance characteristics, fiber-optic cable offers considerable advantages over standard coaxial cables. The most obvious distinction between the two is the great bandwidth-distance capacity of fibers. The high-frequency capacity of coaxial cables decreases rapidly with increased length, but the bandwidth of a commercial fiber-optic system will remain constant with length. A commercial fiber-optic system like that of Artel, as shown in Figure 3, remains constant for a bandwidth over a distance of 4,000 ft, while three different sizes of coaxial cable rapidly drop in less than half the distance.

    For RG-179 coax, a 1,024 × 1,024 signal is limited to 50 ft; RG-59 rolls off 3 dB at 170 ft. Larger, bulkier cables such as RG-11 can reach up to 250 ft, but are impractical to install, since three such cables are required for RGB color. Fiber-optic cable, on the other hand, allows transmission of more than 60 MHz video clock over a mile, and 20 MHz over 2½ miles, with no repeaters or equalizers.

    Noise interference is another important area in which performance differs greatly. Coaxial cables are susceptible to induced interference (EMI/RFI) from such noise generators as fluorescent lights, computers, power cables, industrial equipment, and even other communications cables. Cable frequency equalization further aggravates this noise problem. Fiber-optic cable is, in contrast, immune to all forms of EMI, RFI, and crosstalk.

    --Artel Communications Corporation, "Fiber Optics in RGB Color Computer Graphics Communications," Application Note CG-1

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    Section 5.3.6

    Analogy

    Use analogy to explain one object or process in terms of another. The aptness of the analogy is generally a point of subtle judgment. Some analogies are more valid than others. Comparing an apple to the space shuttle is not likely to be an effective analogy. Explaining the Internet by reference to a highway system might make a better analogy. In the following analogy, a body infection is compared with an invading army of attack organisms.

    The Immunological Defenders and How They Work

    The immune response of billions of cellular defenders is carried out by different kinds of white blood cells, all of which are continuously being produced in the bone marrow. Neutrophils, one type of white blood cell, travel in the blood stream to areas of invasion, attacking and ingesting pathogens. Macrophages, or "big eaters," take up stations in tissues and act as scavengers, devouring pathogens and worn-out cells. Natural killer cells directly destroy virus-infected cells and cells that have turned cancerous. When lymph nodes are actively involved in fighting an invasion of microorganisms, they fill with lymphocytes.

    --P. Insel and W. Roth, Core Concepts in Health

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    Section 5.3.7

    Cause and Effect

    Use cause and effect in paragraphs when you are tracking the development of one situation or event out of another. Cause and effect is an analytical mode of paragraph development that attempts to show how events are influenced by or caused by others--the linkage of causation. In the following paragraph the development follows the inductive pattern of reasoning from effects back to causes.

    Global climate change resulting from the accumulation of greenhouse gases, for example, is likely to have significant health effects, both direct and indirect. An average global temperature rise of 3-4°C, predicted for the year 2100 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, will greatly increase the number of days in the United States with temperatures over 38°C (100°F), with a resulting sharp rise in heat-related mortality. Deaths would occur primarily from heat strokes, heart attacks, and cerebral strokes. The very young, poor, and elderly, as well as those with chronic cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, are most at risk. During the two-week heat wave of July 1993 in the eastern United States, 84 people died in Philadelphia alone as a result of the higher temperatures.

    --E. Chivan, "The Ultimate Preventive Medicine," Technology Review

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    Section 5.3.8

    Classification and Division

    Use classification and division to develop material by relating parts to wholes. In classification, you associate similar things or processes by grouping them into classes. You can classify organisms, mechanisms, processes according to shapes, magnitudes, effects, and so on. In division, you develop a topic by breaking it down into smaller parts. Classification is the tutorial prose strategy. It is an effective approach for showing the terrain of a subject by elaborating upon its essential types. In the following example, corrosion-resistant ceramics are broken down into types.

    Acid Service: Choice of Materials

    Careful design and selection of corrosion-resistant ceramics by process engineers and designers is necessary for long-lasting, reliable, and cost-effective ceramic linings for process equipment. The following types of ceramics are used for acid service.

    Red shale acid brick. These bricks are manufactured from iron-bearing sedimentary clays prepared with low-melting additives. The clay mixture is extruded through a die and then wire-cut into individual bricks. The units are fired to form a bond of melted material between the clay particles. . . . 

    Stoneware and porcelain. A vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic ware, stoneware is made with a fine texture, low-melting-point fireclay. The uniform, chemically resistant microstructure of a stoneware part offers chemical resistance throughout its service lifetime. Stoneware is used in distributors, packing supports, and . . . 

    Glazed ceramic tile. Industrial glazed ceramic tile units are made of fireclays with an iron oxide content of less than 2%. The clays are processed and then extruded into various shapes. The shaped parts are coated on the process side before firing with a glass-forming glaze solution. Then the tile is fired, the clay body . . .

    --Adapted from K. Brooks and M. W. Martin, "Ceramics Stand Up to Acid Service," Chemical Engineering

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    Section 5.3.9

    Definition

    Develop paragraphs by definition when you want to set working generalizations that will help control the meaning and scope of important terms. Defining is an effective way of controlling the scope of terms. In the following paragraph, an extended definition is used as part of the introduction to a research article. The intention here is both to establish the terms of the discourse and to establish the importance of the subject. By exploring the meaning of the term bimetals, the writer creates a shared concept that focuses the discussion that follows. Note the use of other devices, such as functional description and enumeration.

    Bimetallic Components

    Bimetals are components made up of two separate metallic units, each occupying a distinct position in the component. Bimetal rods or wires (also called clad metal, duo- or dual-metal) are made of dissimilar metals. The rod core, a cylindrical body made of one metal, is surrounded by a concentric, cylindrical sleeve of another metal. Some fibrous metals may also be regarded as bimetallic; for example, rods made by unidirectional solidification of some eutectic compositions contain a metallic (or nonmetallic) compound of fibrous filaments embedded in an almost pure metallic matrix. The structure of a present-day Nb-Sn superconducting core can be even more complex. It is multimetallic--containing more than two dissimilar metals. The two elements of a bimetallic product are usually intimately interlocked, so that they function in unison.

    Bimetal rods or wire stems make it possible to combine properties of dissimilar metals. For example:

    • Aluminum-clad steel wire combines the strength of steel with the electrical conductivity and corrosion resistivity of aluminum.

    • Superconductor core clad with copper sleeve combines superconductivity at cryogenic temperatures with assurance against failure when a local temporary rise in resistance or temperature occurs.

    Although the number of desired bimetallic combinations for practical use is virtually unlimited, manufacturing difficulties restrict the number of bimetallic combinations actually in use.

    --Based on B. Avitzur et al., "Criterion for the Prevention of Core Fracture during Extrusion of Bimetal Rods," Journal of Engineering for Industry

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    Section 5.3.10

    Analysis

    Analysis examines a subject by evaluating one of its aspects-- weighing evidence and possible causal linkages. It resembles other forms of paragraph development, especially classification and division. The object of analysis, however, is to get to the center of how something works. The following paragraph considers the link between cancer, poverty, and stress.

    One possible explanation for these statistics on cancer can be found in the high levels of stress associated with poverty. Studies have found that stress can dampen the immune system, the body's first line of defense against cancer, and experiments with animals have shown that a stressful environment can enhance the growth of a variety of tumors. The link between poverty, stress, and cancer mortality in humans has not been proven, but studies have shown a link between stress and other illnesses.

    --Thomas D. Fahey, Paul M. Insel, and Walton T. Roth, Fit and Well: Core Concepts in Physical Fitness and Wellness

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    Section 5.3.11

    Enumeration

    Use enumeration in paragraphs when you want to itemize or list a set of topics or a series of some kind. Enumeration is a powerful way to establish a series of observations and to emphasize each element. In the following paragraph, the items are enumerated in a series of itemized recommendations.

    Have your blood cholesterol measured if you've never had it done. Finger-prick tests at health fairs and other public places are generally fairly accurate, especially if they're offered by a hospital or other reputable health group. When you know your "number," follow these guidelines from the National Cholesterol Education Program:
    • If your cholesterol is under 200 mg/dl, maintain a healthy lifestyle--including eating a low-fat diet, getting regular exercise, maintaining a health body weight, and not smoking--and get another test within five years.

    • If your cholesterol is between 200 and 239 mg/dl, have a second test performed and average the results. If that number falls in the same range, and if you do have any form of cardiovascular disease, change your diet to improve your cholesterol. In addition, eliminate any other risk factors you have and get tested again in about one year.

    • If your cholesterol is 240 mg/dl or more, your physician should order a more detailed cholesterol analysis and recommend therapy based on the results. You should begin a cholesterol-improving diet immediately.

    --P. Insel and W. Roth, Core Concepts in Health

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    Section 6.1

    Stacked Modifiers and Nouns

    Avoid using long strings of modifiers or nouns. These stacked modifiers and nouns can be hard to read and sometimes create ambiguity. Add a few words (especially prepositions and conjunctions) to make the relationships between nouns clear to the reader.

    Weak

    Previous work has shown that a purified pro-oxidant, vitamin E-deficient fish oil diet protects mice against malaria parasites.

    Improved

    Previous work has shown that feeding a pro-oxidant diet containing fish oil, but devoid of vitamin E, protects mice against malaria parasites.

    --Orville A. Levande et al., "Protection against Murine Cerebral Malaria by Dietary-Induced Oxidative Stress," Journal of Parasitology

    Weak

    We have analyzed low-energy, interplanetary charged, sun-sourced particle flux time series.

    Improved

    We have analyzed the time series of fluxes of low-energy interplanetary charged particles, whose ultimate origin is the Sun.

    --David J. Thomson et al., "Propagation of Solar Oscillations through the Interplanetary Medium," Nature

    Weak

    The system uses a high peak power single frequency low divergent light beam produced by pulsed lasers. [The modification of beam is difficult to sort out.]

    Improved

    The system uses pulsed lasers that operate under high peak power to produce a single-frequency light beam with low divergence.

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    Section 6.2

    Wordiness

    Say what you have to say in as few words as possible without sacrificing clarity or omitting vital information. Conciseness is desirable in all writing, but especially so in technical writing. Excessive use of the passive voice, excessive nominalization, unnecessary repetition, and unnecessary words and phrases are some common causes of wordy writing.

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    Section 6.2.1

    Passive Voice and Active Voice

    Use the active voice whenever the passive voice is not appropriate. Active verbs make for concise prose; sentences with passive verbs use more words. Moreover, passive verbs deemphasize or even eliminate mention of the performer of the action conveyed by the verb. See Voice.

    Weak

    In this project, three psychological experiments were performed by the authors so that the technical problems for the auralization of a sound field could be clarified.

    Improved

    In this project, the authors performed three psychological experiments to clarify the technical problems for the auralization of a sound field.

    Weak

    The matter of personnel health hazards associated with airborne free chlorine or other gases apparently has not been considered in this excavation plan. [Note that the indirect wording has left out the main agent (the excavation planners).]

    Improved

    Excavation planners apparently have not considered how airborne free chlorine or other gases might cause health hazards to personnel.

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    Section 6.2.2

    Nominalizations

    Where possible, use verb forms instead of noun forms. Excessive or unnecessary nominalization (turning verbs into nouns) can make your writing wordy because it requires a noun and a verb instead of just the verb form.

    Weak

    A winglet may cause the introduction of a discontinuity in the lift distribution curve.

    Improved

    A winglet may introduce a discontinuity in the lift distribution curve.

    --Heather Reed (modified)

    Weak

    Regeneration of the resin bed is achieved by a calcium chloride solution. [Note that the main action of the sentence is located in the nominal subject.]

    Improved

    The resin bed is regenerated with a calcium chloride solution. [The main action of the sentence is now in the verb.]

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    Section 6.2.3

    Unnecessary Repetition

    Avoid unnecessary repetition. One of the most common types of unnecessary repetition involves modifiers that repeat information given in the word modified.

    small in size

    completely eliminate

    silver in color

    maximize as much as possible

    Unacceptable

    Currently, aircraft must be kept a minimum of at least three miles apart in the horizontal plane.

    Improved

    Currently, aircraft must be kept a minimum of three miles apart in the horizontal plane.

    --Jason C. Bunn, "Advanced Air Traffic Situation Control System" (modified)

    Weak

    In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered for the first time that Penicillum mold could kill Staphylococcus bacteria in petri dishes. Fleming named the lethal antibacterial chemical secreted by the deadly Penicillum mold, dubbing it "penicillin."

    Improved

    In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered that Penicillum mold could kill Staphylococcus bacteria in petri dishes. He dubbed the lethal antibacterial chemical secreted by the mold "penicillin."

    --Laurie Garrett, The Coming Plague (modified)

    Weak

    Ability to separate from water is an essential prerequisite for a hydraulic oil to be used in plant systems where contamination of the hydraulic system by water is likely to form sludge emulsions of oil and water. [There is much repetition of phrases and terms in this sentence.]

    Improved

    Plants with hydraulic systems routinely exposed to water should use hydraulic oils that are immiscible with water.

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    Section 6.2.4

    Unnecessary Words and Phrases

    Make sure that each word and phrase in your sentences contributes to meaning and clarity. Try to avoid the two commonly used constructions There is/are . . . and It is . . . . Delete superfluous material when you revise your first draft.

    Weak

    It is expected that by the year 2000, the Library of Congress will have digitized 5 million books and images.

    Improved

    By the year 2000, the Library of Congress expects to have digitized 5 million books and images.

    Improved

    There is an electronic Beowulf project at the British Library that is preserving the original manuscript of the 11th century Anglo-Saxon epic.

    Improved

    An electronic Beowulf project at the British Library is preserving the original manuscript of the 11th century Anglo-Saxon epic.

    --Richard Lipkin, "The Library That Isn't There," Science News

    Weak

    Are the detection systems and secondary containments periodically performance testable to verify operability in the event that they are called upon to function? [A very long-winded way to ask a simple question.]

    Improved

    Can the detection systems and secondary containments be performance tested periodically?

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    Section 6.3

    Overloaded Sentences

    Avoid sentences that contain more information than the reader can easily follow. Instead, divide such sentences into more manageable pieces that can be easily grasped.

    Weak

    Because researchers interested in speech synthesis and automatic recognition need to find rules that improve intelligibility of speech, they need to study the psychological determinants more closely before they can solve what has become a complex set of questions.

    Improved

    Researchers interested in speech synthesis and automatic recognition need to find rules that improve intelligibility of speech. Consequently, they need to study the psychological determinants more closely before they can solve what has become a complex set of questions.

    Weak

    In response to the leak history of the pipe made of 304-L stainless steel, a work request, IJ-117, was prepared by Plant Maintenance in August of 1989 to replace approximately 55 feet of the HLD 304-L pipe--the entire segment running from the "cells" area to the point in the drainage system that turns south to exit the building--with pipe made of a different material, Iconel 600 (see Figure N).

    Improved

    Plant Maintenance responded to the leak history of the stainless steel pipe (304-L) with a work request in August 1989 to replace a 55-foot section with Iconel 600 pipe. This section made up the entire pipe segment running from the "cells" area to a point where the drainage system turns south to exit the building (see Figure N).

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    Section 6.4

    Sentence Fragments

    A sentence fragment is missing a subject, a verb, or both, but is punctuated as if it were a complete sentence.

    Unacceptable

    By virtue of their prevalence alone. It is clear that mood disorders do not necessarily breed genius. [By virtue of their prevalence alone contains neither a subject nor a verb.]

    To repair a sentence fragment, add the missing element (subject or verb), or merge the fragment with a clause that does contain a subject and a verb.

    Acceptable

    By virtue of their prevalence alone, it is clear that mood disorders do not necessarily breed genius.

    --"Manic-Depressive Illness and Creativity," Scientific American

    When you edit your documents, check to be sure that you have not used any sentence fragments.

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    Section 6.5

    Comma Splice

    Never link two independent clauses with just a comma; this is known as a comma splice error. You can correct a comma splice in four ways:

    1. Separate the independent clauses into two separate sentences. Punctuate both sentences with periods.

    2. Replace the comma with a semicolon or with a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb such as however or furthermore. (The conjunctive adverb is then normally followed by a comma.)

    3. Replace the comma with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

    4. Make one of the clauses into a subordinate clause.

    Unacceptable

    In 1931 Oppenheimer attempted to find an equation for the photon that would be an analogue to Dirac's equation for the electron, he failed in this effort.

    Acceptable

    In 1931 Oppenheimer attempted to find an equation for the photon that would be an analogue to Dirac's equation for the electron. He failed in this effort.

    Acceptable

    In 1931 Oppenheimer attempted to find an equation for the photon that would be an analogue to Dirac's equation for the electron; he failed in this effort. [or ". . . electron; however, he failed . . ."]

    Acceptable

    In 1931 Oppenheimer attempted to find an equation for the photon that would be an analogue to Dirac's equation for the electron, but he failed in this effort.

    Acceptable

    Although in 1931 Oppenheimer attempted to find an equation for the photon that would be an analogue to Dirac's equation for the electron, he failed in this effort.

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    Section 6.6

    Fused Sentences

    Do not allow two independent clauses to run together without a conjunction or punctuation between them. This error produces a fused sentence. To join two main clauses, follow the options listed under comma splice.

    Unacceptable

    A remote control for a car alarm works better held up at arm's length than at waist level but works best when held under the chin physicists suggest that the body may be acting as an extension of the antenna.

    Acceptable

    A remote control for a car alarm works better held up at arm's length than at waist level but works best when held under the chin; physicists suggest that the body may be acting as an extension of the antenna.

    Acceptable

    A remote control for a car alarm works better held up at arm's length than at waist level but works best when held under the chin. Physicists suggest that the body may be acting as an extension of the antenna.

    --"Newscripts," Chemical & Engineering News (modified)

    Unacceptable

    Lenticular clouds frequently form one above the other like a stack of pancakes at a distance they may resemble a fleet of hovering spacecraft.

    Acceptable

    Lenticular clouds frequently form one above the other like a stack of pancakes; at a distance they may resemble a fleet of hovering spacecraft.

    Acceptable

    Lenticular clouds frequently form one above the other like a stack of pancakes. At a distance they may resemble a fleet of hovering spacecraft.

    Acceptable

    Lenticular clouds frequently form one above the other like a stack of pancakes, and at a distance they may resemble a fleet of hovering spacecraft.

    --C. Donald Ahrens, Meteorology Today (modified)

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    Section 6.7

    Stringy Sentences

    Avoid stringing several clauses that would be easier to read and understand if they were broken up into separate clauses.

    Weak

    We must accept the facts and our enormous energy requirements, but it is also important not to forget that attempts to economize on safety provisions in such hazardous industries result in increased risk, and these increased risks may result in terrible tragedy, even in disasters whose consequences exceed national boundaries, although it is certainly true that a nuclear power station working safely, without accident, is ecologically one of the cleanest of all industrial plants.

    Improved

    We must accept the facts and our enormous energy requirements, but it is also important not to forget that attempts to economize on safety provisions in such hazardous industries result in increased risk. And these increased risks may result in terrible tragedy, even in disasters whose consequences exceed national boundaries. It is certainly true, however, that a nuclear power station working safely, without accident, is ecologically one of the cleanest of all industrial plants.

    --V. M. Chernousenko, Chernobyl (modified)

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    Section 6.8

    Agreement

    Agreement between subjects and verbs and between pronouns and their antecedents is important for paragraph coherence, as well as for style and grammar. When editing your document, check for agreement, paying close attention to subjects, verbs, and pronouns.

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    Section 6.8.1

    Subject-Verb Agreement

    Your verb must agree with your subject in number and person. If your subject is singular, your verb must be singular; if your subject is plural, your verb must be plural. If your subject is in the first person, your verb must be in the first person. If your subject is in the second or third person, your verb must agree.

    Unacceptable

    For more than a century, researchers has known that exposure to high pressure can injure or kill living organisms.

    Acceptable

    For more than a century, researchers have known that exposure to high pressure can injure or kill.

    --"The Physiology of Decompression Illness," Scientific American

    In general, you can think of subject-verb agreement as requiring one -s per clause, either on the subject or on the verb, but not on both. (Of course, this rule applies only with present tense verbs and nouns that do not have irregular plural forms.)

    Do not be led astray by modifying phrases that separate the subject and the verb. If you are not sure about the subject-verb agreement, test the sentence by leaving out the modifiers.

    Unacceptable

    A mixture of materials were used to withstand high temperatures. [The subject is mixture, not materials.]

    Acceptable

    A mixture of materials was used to withstand high temperatures.

    Also see subject-verb agreement involving two or more nouns, collective nouns, indefinite pronouns, quantifiers and sentences beginning with there.

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    Section 6.8.1.1

    Two or More Nouns

    If your subject consists of two or more nouns, you need to pay special attention to subject-verb agreement. If the nouns are connected by the coordinating conjunction and, use a plural verb.

    Unacceptable

    Although accidents and congestion results from driving itself rather than from fuel use, much of urban air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and the economic burden of oil imports can all be tied directly to fuel consumption.

    Acceptable

    Although accidents and congestion result from driving itself rather than from fuel use, much of urban air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and the economic burden of oil imports can all be tied directly to fuel consumption.

    --"Improving Automotive Efficiency," Scientific American (modified)

    However, if the nouns connected by the coordinating conjunction and are generally thought of as one item, use a singular verb.

    Unacceptable

    Macaroni and cheese are easy to make.

    Acceptable

    Macaroni and cheese is easy to make.

    If the nouns are connected by the coordinating conjunction or, use a verb that agrees with the nearer noun.

    Unacceptable

    Your advisor or your course instructor are required to sign the form.

    Acceptable

    Your advisor or your course instructor is required to sign the form.

    If the nouns are connected by the correlative conjunction both . . . and, use a plural verb.

    Unacceptable

    Both your advisor and your course instructor is required to sign the form.

    Acceptable

    Both your advisor and your course instructor are required to sign the form.

    If the nouns are connected by the correlative conjunctions either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also, use a verb that agrees with the nearer noun.

    Unacceptable

    Either your course instructor or three fellow students who know your ability is required to sign the form.

    Either three fellow students who know your ability or your course instructor are required to sign the form.

    Acceptable

    Either your course instructor or three fellow students who know your ability are required to sign the form.

    Either three fellow students who know your ability or your course instructor is required to sign the form.

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    Section 6.8.1.2

    Sentences Beginning with There

    If your sentence begins with there and the subject follows the verb, you need to pay special attention to subject-verb agreement. If the noun following there is singular, the verb should be singular.

    Unacceptable

    There have been much advancement in prostheses in recent years.

    Acceptable

    There has been much advancement in prostheses in recent years.

    --Linglei Xu, "Bone Talk," SciTech Magazine

    If the noun following there is plural, the verb should be plural.

    Unacceptable

    There is many ideas of how to organize assemblers.

    There are many ideas of how to organize assemblers.

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    Section 6.8.1.3

    Indefinite Pronouns

    Use singular verbs with the indefinite pronouns nobody, somebody, anybody, everybody, no one, someone, anyone, everyone, nothing, something, anything, and everything.

    Unacceptable

    Today everybody use cellular phones.

    Acceptable

    Today everbody uses cellular phones.

    Unacceptable

    Nothing travel faster than light.

    Acceptable

    Nothing travels faster than light.

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    Section 6.8.1.4

    Collective Nouns

    Collective nouns refer to groups, such as committee (group of people), flock, (group of birds) or herd (group of animals). If the subject of your sentence is a collective noun, you need to pay special attention to subject-verb agreement. Use a singular verb when the collective noun represents the individuals acting as a unit.

    Unacceptable

    An interagency science committee have been issuing technical recommendations about everything from computer modeling to remote sensing in the Everglades.

    Acceptable

    An interagency science committee has been issuing technical recommendations about everything from computer modeling to remote sensing in the Everglades.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technological Review (modified)

    Use a plural verb when the sentence emphasizes that the individuals are acting separately.

    Unacceptable

    The team congratulates each other whenever they win a competition.

    Acceptable

    The team congratulate each other whenever they win a competition.

    The best solution is to emphasize that you are focusing on individual members of a collective noun by adding the word members:

    The team members congratulate each other whenever they win a competition.



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    Section 6.8.1.5

    Quantifiers

    Quantifiers include words such as all, most, many, more, some, none, few, both, each, and every. Some quantifiers are singular, some are plural, and some may be either. Be sure to choose an appropriate verb whenever the subject includes a quantifier. When you use a quantifier to modify an uncountable (mass) noun, choose a singular verb.

    Unacceptable

    In a given location, more solar energy reach the earth's surface on a clear, long day than on a day that is clear but much shorter.

    Acceptable

    In a given location, more solar energy reaches the earth's surface on a clear, long day than on a day that is clear but much shorter.

    --C. Donald Ahrens, Meteorology Today (modified)

    Use a plural verb when you modify a countable noun with one of the following quantifiers: all, most, many, some, few, both.

    Unacceptable

    Some hibernating turtles holds their breath all winter long.

    Acceptable

    Some hibernating turtles hold their breath all winter long.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    Unacceptable

    Many chemical sensors relies on electrochemical principles, whereby the relevant chemical species induces a change in electrical current or voltage at an electrode.

    Acceptable

    Many chemical sensors rely on electrochemical principles, whereby the relevant chemical species induces a change in electrical current or voltage at an electrode.

    --Philip Ball, Designing the Molecular World

    When you use a quantifier followed by of, choose a verb that agrees in number with the noun that follows the quantifier.

    Unacceptable

    More than half of the whales in the world is less than 15 feet long.

    Acceptable

    More than half of the whales in the world are less than 15 feet long.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    Unacceptable

    Some of the water contain deuterium.

    Acceptable

    Some of the water contains deuterium.

    The quantifiers one, each and every normally take singular verbs, whether or not they are followed by of.

    Unacceptable

    Every wild creature need a certain amount of territory for its survival, and the grown tiger is said to need more than any other land animal.

    Acceptable

    Every wild creature needs a certain amount of territory for its survival, and the grown tiger is said to need more than any other land animal.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    Unacceptable

    In contrast to ordinary light, which vibrates in all directions at right angles to the line of propagation, a light ray that penetrates calcite is broken into two rays by the internal structure of the crystal, and each of the two rays that pass through the crystal vibrate in only one plane. Light so modified that it vibrates in only one plane is said to be polarized.

    Acceptable

    In contrast to ordinary light, which vibrates in all directions at right angles to the line of propagation, a light ray that penetrates calcite is broken into two rays by the internal structure of the crystal, and each of the two rays that pass through the crystal vibrates in only one plane. Light so modified that it vibrates in only one plane is said to be polarized.

    --James Gilluly, Principles of Geology (modified)

    Unacceptable

    Each stage bring environmental destruction as the usual by-product, in the form of pollution and the destruction of land and ecologies.

    Acceptable

    Each stage brings environmental destruction as the usual by-product, in the form of pollution and the destruction of land and ecologies.

    --Kai Wu, "Prometheus Returns," SciTech Magazine

    After a coordinate noun phrase (two or more nouns joined by a coordinating conjunction such as and) beginning with each or every, use a singular verb.

    Unacceptable

    Each man and woman who applied for the position were considered carefully.

    Acceptable

    Each man and woman who applied for the position was considered carefully.

    Special case: When each follows a plural noun or pronoun or a compound subject (two or more nouns or pronouns joined by the coordinate conjunction and), use a plural verb.

    Unacceptable

    They each is applying for the position.

    Tom and Jeannine each is applying for the position.

    Acceptable

    They each are applying for the position.

    Tom and Jeannine each are applying for the position.

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    Section 6.8.2

    Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

    A pronoun must agree in gender and number with its antecedent. If necessary, vary your choice of pronouns to avoid sexist language. Sometimes the best way to avoid sexist language is to change the singular to the plural.

    Unacceptable

    In the United States, an astronaut candidate must be recommended by their previous organization.

    Acceptable

    In the United States, an astronaut candidate must be recommended by his previous organization.

    Acceptable

    In the United States, an astronaut candidate must be recommended by her previous organization.

    Acceptable

    In the United States, astronaut candidates must be recommended by their previous organizations.

    --"Astronaut Selection and Training," Compton's Encyclopedia (modified)

    When the antecedent is a singular indefinite pronoun, use a singular pronoun to refer to it. In such cases, vary your choice of pronouns to avoid sexist language. Sometimes the best way to avoid sexist language is to change the singular to the plural.

    Unacceptable

    Each of the astronaut candidates sent their photograph with their application.

    Acceptable

    Each of the astronaut candidates sent his photograph with his application.

    Acceptable

    Each of the astronaut candidates sent her photograph with her application.

    Acceptable

    All of the astronauts sent their photographs with their applications.

    When the antecedent is a plural indefinite pronoun, use a plural pronoun to refer to it.

    Unacceptable

    Some of the astronaut candidates sent his photograph with his application.

    Unacceptable

    Some of the astronaut candidates sent her photograph with her application.

    Acceptable

    Some of the astronaut candidates sent their photographs with their applications.

    Use a plural pronoun to refer to antecedents joined by the coordinating conjunction and.

    Unacceptable

    The ceramic tile and the aluminum alloy used in the experiment retained its initial hardness.

    Acceptable

    The ceramic tile and the aluminum alloy used in the experiment retained their initial hardness.

    Use a pronoun that agrees in gender and number with the closest antecedent to refer to antecedents joined by the coordinating conjunctions or and nor.

    Unacceptable

    Either the disks or the motor need their parts repositioned.

    Acceptable

    Either the disks or the motor needs its parts repositioned.

    Acceptable

    Either the motor or the disks need their parts repositioned.

    Use a singular pronoun to refer to antecedents preceded by each or every.

    Unacceptable

    Each ceramic tile and aluminum alloy sample used in the experiment retained their initial hardness.

    Acceptable

    Each ceramic tile and aluminum alloy sample used in the experiment retained its initial hardness.

    Special case: If each follows a plural antecedent, use a plural pronoun.

    Unacceptable

    They each sent in his application. Tom and Jerry each sent in his application.

    Acceptable

    They each sent in their applications. Tom and Jerry each sent in their applications.

    Use a singular pronoun to refer to a collective noun acting as a group.

    Unacceptable

    The astronaut selection committee submits their decision to NASA.

    Acceptable

    The astronaut selection committee submits its decision to NASA.

    Use a plural pronoun to refer to the members of a collective noun acting as individuals.

    Unacceptable

    The astronaut selection committee vote for its favorite candidates.

    Acceptable

    The astronaut selection committee vote for their favorite candidates.

    Acceptable

    The members of the astronout selection committee vote for their favorite candidates.

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    Section 6.9

    Lack of Parallelism

    Parallelism refers to the principle that parts of a sentence that are the same in function should be the same in structure. Words or phrases joined by coordinating conjunctions should have the same form.

    When NASA first organized the Viking Lander missions to Mars, one of the most vexing problems its scientists faced was devising and agreeing upon tests to detect life.

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine.

    Make sure phrases joined by coordinating or correlative conjunctions are parallel. All phrases must be of the same type.

    Unacceptable

    An important consideration in orthopedic surgery and how to implant prostheses is the possibility of infection.

    Acceptable

    An important consideration in orthopedic surgery and prosthesis implants is the possibility of infection.

    --Linglei Xu, "Bone Talk," SciTech Magazine (modified)

    Make sure all items or phrases in lists are parallel.

    Unacceptable

    The comparison will cover
    • possible mechanisms of change [noun phrase]
    • how the fissures widen because of regional tectonic stress [noun clause]
    • are there changes in permeability from increased microcracking? [question]

    Acceptable

    The comparison will cover
    • possible mechanisms of change [noun phrase]
    • fissure widening from regional tectonic stress [noun phrase]
    • permeability from increased microcracking [noun phrase]

    Make sure all headings and subheadings are parallel with the other headings and subheadings of the same level.

    Make sure all entries of the same level in an outline are parallel.

    Unacceptable

    3  Strategies for developing tooling systems for high-
   speed machining
   3.1  How chemically stable materials are made 
          [noun clause]
   3.2  Diffusion-limited wear regimes  [noun phrase]
   3.3  Isolate the tool from the workplace [imperative]

    Acceptable

    3  Strategies for developing tooling systems for
   high-speed machining
   3.1  Chemically stable materials  [noun phrase]
   3.2  Diffusion-limited wear regimes  [noun phrase]
   3.3  Isolation of the tool from the workplace 
        [noun phrase]

    See also Nonparallel Comparisons.

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    Section 6.10

    Choppy Sentences

    Avoid using too many short sentences that will create choppy prose. Vary your sentence types and combine short related sentences by making some elements dependent clauses or phrases.

    Compare the following choppy sentences and the revised version (as the author actually wrote it).

    Weak

    Adaptive optics is an electronic feedback mechanism capable of correcting for the distorting effects of the earth's atmosphere It allows much sharper images of astronomical objects. Because of moving pockets of air and changes in temperature, the earth's atmosphere is constantly shimmering. Such shimmering causes passing light rays to bend one way then another. In effect, the shifting atmosphere acts as a rapidly changing lens. It smears out and defocuses images. In adaptive optics, motorized cushions are placed behind the telescope's secondary mirror. They constantly reshape the mirror's surface to counteract the defocusing effect of the atmosphere. [choppy]

    Improved

    Adaptive optics is an electronic feedback mechanism capable of correcting for the distorting effects of the earth's atmosphere and thus allowing much sharper images of astronomical objects. The earth's atmosphere is constantly shimmering, because of moving pockets of air and changes in temperature, and such shimmering causes passing light rays to bend one way then another. In effect, the shifting atmosphere acts as a rapidly changing lens, smearing out and defocusing images. In adaptive optics, motorized cushions are placed behind the telescope's secondary mirror and constantly reshape the mirror's surface to counteract the defocusing effect of the atmosphere. [original]

    --Alan Lightman, Ancient Light

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    Section 6.11

    Misplaced Modifiers

    To ensure clarity, place your modifiers carefully. Make sure that your placement of modifiers does not interrupt the sentence structure or create ambiguity. See Modifiers of Nouns and Adverb Modifiers.

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    Section 6.11.1

    Interrupted Sentence Structure

    Placing a modifier between the subject and the verb or between the verb and the direct object can weaken the structure of the sentence and make the sentence difficult to interpret. In general, the longer and more complicated the modifier, the more it weakens the sentence. Although you can often get away with interrupting the structure of the sentence with a short (one-word) modifier, adding a longer modifier significantly worsens the sentence.

    Weak

    The heron, egret, and stork colonies in Everglades National Park that once each contained tens of thousands of birds whose bustling extravagance helped inspire the founding in 1905 of the National Association of Audubon Societies (later the National Audubon Society) have shrunk by 95 percent since the 1930s.

    Improved

    The bird colonies in Everglades National Park once each contained tens of thousands of birds whose bustling extravagance helped inspire the founding in 1905 of the National Association of Audubon Societies (later the National Audubon Society). These colonies of herons, egrets, and storks have shrunk by 95 percent since the 1930s.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

    If possible, avoid placing a modifier between the verb and the direct object.

    Weak

    Inventors unlocked more than a century ago the secrets of turning the sun's rays into mechanical power.

    Improved

    Inventors unlocked the secrets of turning the sun's rays into mechanical power more than a century ago.

    Improved

    More than a century ago, inventors unlocked the secrets of turning the sun's rays into mechanical power.

    --Charles Smith, "Revisiting Solar Power's Past," Technology Review

    If possible, avoid splitting an infinitive with a modifier placed between to and the verb.

    Weak

    The ability to assemble structures at the atomic scale will require the development of molecular assemblers: tiny, programmable robots able to precisely provide positional chemical bonding.

    Improved

    The ability to assemble structures at the atomic scale will require the development of molecular assemblers: tiny, programmable robots able to provide precise positional chemical bonding.

    --Kai Wu, "Prometheus Returns" SciTech Magazine

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    Section 6.11.2

    Modifiers of Nouns

    Modifiers of nouns should be placed either immediately before or immediately after the noun. If another phrase is allowed to separate the noun and its modifier, the modifier may be misinterpreted as applying to a noun in the separating phrase rather than to the original noun.

    Weak

    More than 750 metric tons of lead ingots were examined by the quality control inspectors that circle the base of the tower. [The ingots, not the quality control inspectors, circle the base of the tower.]

    Improved

    More than 750 metric tons of lead ingots that circle the base of the tower were examined by the quality control inspectors.

    Improved

    The quality control inspectors examined more than 750 metric tons of lead ingots that circle the base of the tower.

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    Section 6.11.3

    Adverb Modifiers

    Adverbs should be placed as close as possible to the words or phrases that they modify. If you allow an adverb to be separated from the word or phrase that it modifies, the interpretation of the adverb may become ambiguous.

    Always place a quantity adverb immediately before the word it modifies.

    For all its richness, today's Everglades is a drastically diminished place. [Drastically means to a great extent.]

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

    Be especially careful with the placement of the adverbs only and just. Not only can the meaning of a sentence be ambiguous, but the meaning can change drastically as the adverb moves. Consider the following examples.

    For the most part, we considered only computer simulations that mimic the lamprey's neural activity. [The sentence suggests that, of various simulations the investigators might have considered, they focused on just those of a certain sort--perhaps true, but not what the author wished to communicate.]

    For the most part, we considered computer simulations that only mimic the lamprey's neural activity. [The sentence suggests that some computer simulations might do more than mimic-- nonsense, since all simulations just mimic the process they are simulating.]

    For the most part, we considered computer simulations that mimic the lamprey's neural activity only. [The sentence suggests that, of more than one feature of the lamprey's behavior or more than one kind of activity, the investigation singled out neural activity--again possibly true, but not what the author wished to communicate.]

    For the most part, we considered computer simulations that mimic the lamprey's only neural activity. [The sentence now suggests, erroneously, that the lamprey has but a single neural activity and that this activity was the focus of the investigation.]

    For the most part, we considered computer simulations that mimic only the lamprey's neural activity. [This is in fact how the author wrote the sentence, though (at least out of context) the sentence is still ambiguous. Is the point that the neural activity only of the lamprey, but not of other animals, was the focus of the investigation, or that only neural activity was to be simulated?]

    --Sten Grillner, "Neural Networks for Vertebrate Locomotion," Scientific American (modified)

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    Section 6.12

    Dangling Modifiers

    A modifier whose connection to the sentence is implied or intended but not actually made explicit is said to dangle. Dangling modifiers detract from the clarity of your writing, so you should make sure your modifiers are properly connected to the words they modify. To repair a dangling modifier, add the the noun or phrase that the modifier was intended to modify and rephrase the sentence accordingly.

    Weak

    When traveling at the speed of sound, the moon is approximately 320 hours away. [The moon does not travel at the speed of sound.]

    Improved

    An object traveling at the speed of sound will reach the moon in approximately 320 hours.

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    Section 6.13

    Double Negatives

    Use only one negative word to express a negative idea. In English, using two negative words to express one negative idea creates a positive rather than a negative interpretation.

    Unacceptable

    The water management model simulated how water would flow through today's Everglades if all the pumps, gates, and other water control devices had not never been built. [Not never means at some time.]

    Acceptable

    The water management model simulated how water would flow through today's Everglades if all the pumps, gates, and other water control devices had never been built.

    Acceptable

    The water management model simulated how water would flow through today's Everglades if all the pumps, gates, and other water control devices had not been built.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

    If you would like to negate more than one word, use a negative word for the first word you would like to negate and replace any remaining negative words with an indefinite pronoun beginning with any- or the adverb ever.

    Unacceptable

    Because no one was never around to record nothing, the computer model's algorithms cannot be calibrated and verified against reality.

    Acceptable

    Because no one was ever around to record anything, the computer model's algorithms cannot be calibrated and verified against reality.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

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    Section 6.14

    Faulty Comparisons

    Comparing one item with another can be a very powerful way to describe an object or a process (see the discussion of comparison and contrast). To make your comparison effective, however, you must maintain parallelism in your comparison, include the basis of your comparison, and ensure that your comparison is not ambiguous.

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    Section 6.14.1

    Nonparallel Comparisons

    When you construct a comparison, you must make the two items being compared parallel in structure.

    Unacceptable

    Ecological modeling [noun phrase] is even more difficult than to construct a hydrological model[infinitive phrase].

    Acceptable

    Ecological modeling [noun phrase] is even more difficult than hydrological modeling [noun phrase].

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

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    Section 6.14.2

    Incomplete Comparisons

    Incomplete comparisons detract from the clarity of your writing. To be complete, a comparison must include both the item being compared and the item it is being compared with. If you leave out the item being compared with, the reader may not understand your intended meaning.

    Unacceptable

    Ecological modeling is more difficult. [More difficult than what?]

    Acceptable

    Ecological modeling is more difficult than hydrological modeling.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

    Unacceptable

    Ever since the early 1960s, when the Corps of Engineers completed the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project, the area's fresh water has been shunted through 1,400 miles of canals and levees, 150 gates and spillways, and 16 of the largest pumping stations. [Largest where? In the project? In the area?]

    Acceptable

    Ever since the early 1960s, when the Corps of Engineers completed the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project, the area's fresh water has been shunted through 1,400 miles of canals and levees, 150 gates and spillways, and 16 of the largest pumping stations in the world.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

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    Section 6.14.3

    Ambiguous Comparisons

    As you construct a comparison, you can often avoid wordiness by shortening the basis of the comparison. However, doing so can introduce ambiguity, so abbreviate your bases of comparison with care. If you shorten your basis of comparison, you must check to make sure that the basis is still clear.

    You can often repair an ambiguous comparison by adding a pronoun.

    Unacceptable

    The symposium revealed that more was known than realized. [More was known than was accomplished, or more was known than was thought?]

    Acceptable

    The symposium revealed that more was known than we realized.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

    You can often repair ambiguous comparisons by adding an auxiliary verb.

    Unacceptable

    Von Neumann took a very different approach towards artificial intelligence (AI) than other computer scientists. [Was his approach toward AI different from his approach toward other computer scientists, or was his approach different from the approach of other computer scientists?]

    Acceptable

    Von Neumann took a very different approach towards artificial intelligence (AI) than other computer scientists did.

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine (modified)

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    Section 6.15

    Inappropriate Shifts

    Be consistent in your choice of tense, mood, person, and voice. Shifting any of these categories without good reason will detract from the clarity of your writing.

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    Section 6.15.1

    Inappropriate Shifts in Tense

    As a general rule, verb tenses within a sentence or a paragraph should be consistent. A shift in tense without reason distorts the sequence of events being described and will confuse your reader. For example, if you begin a description with a verb in the past tense, do not switch to a verb in the present tense.

    Weak

    Surgery made critical advances in the 19th century. The discovery of anesthesia by Crawford Long in 1842 and W. T. G. Morton in 1846 gave doctors greater freedom to put their new anatomical knowledge to practical use. After Louis Pasteur discovered that microorganisms caused infections, Joseph Lister (1827-1912), a young Scottish surgeon, realized that antiseptic surgical techniques would allow surgeons to suture wounds and avoid infection. Finally, Roentgen reports his discovery of X-rays (or roentgenograms) in 1895, which is immediately put to practical use in surgical diagnosis.

    Improved

    Surgery made critical advances in the 19th century. The discovery of anesthesia by Crawford Long in 1842 and W. T. G. Morton in 1846 gave doctors greater freedom to put their new anatomical knowledge to practical use. After Louis Pasteur discovered that microorganisms caused infections, Joseph Lister (1827-1912), a young Scottish surgeon, realized that antiseptic surgical techniques would allow surgeons to suture wounds and avoid infection. Finally, Roentgen reported his discovery of X-rays (or roentgenograms) in 1895, which was immediately put to practical use in surgical diagnosis.

    --Linglei Xu, "Bone Talk," SciTech Magazine (modified)

    See also the discussion of sequence of tenses.

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    Section 6.15.2

    Inappropriate Shifts in Mood

    Be consistent in your choice of mood. A shift in mood without reason will confuse your reader. For example, do not combine an imperative clause with an indicative clause in the same sentence. See also Lack of Parallelism.

    Read the instructions carefully [imperative] and you must assemble the equipment completely [indicative] before beginning the procedure.

    Acceptable

    Read the instructions carefully [imperative] and assemble the equipment completely [imperative] before beginning the procedure.

    Acceptable

    You must read the instructions carefully [indicative] and assemble the equipment completely [indicative] before beginning the procedure.

    If you begin a description in the conditional (often regarded as a variety of the subjunctive), do not shift carelessly to the indicative.

    Unacceptable

    One use for von Neumann machines proposes a single "space-seed" self- replicating factory that could be sent to another world, where upon landing it will collect raw materials and build more copies of itself to accomplish some enormous engineering project.

    Acceptable

    One use for von Neumann machines proposes a single "space-seed" self- replicating factory that could be sent to another world, where upon landing it would collect raw materials and build more copies of itself to accomplish some enormous engineering project.

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine (modified)

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    Section 6.15.3

    Inappropriate Shifts in Person

    Be consistent in your choice of person. A shift in person without reason will confuse your reader. For example, if you begin a description in the first person, do not shift to the second person.

    Unacceptable

    We once had an ecosystem that we called the Everglades. Now you have a big wetland out there, and still call it the Everglades. But it's not. It no longer has the defining characteristics of the original Everglades.

    Acceptable

    We once had an ecosystem that we called the Everglades. Now we have a big wetland out there, and still call it the Everglades. But it's not. It no longer has the defining characteristics of the original Everglades.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

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    Section 6.15.4

    Inappropriate Shifts in Voice

    Be consistent in your choice of voice. A shift in voice without reason will confuse your reader. For example, do not combine a passive voice clause with an active voice clause in the same sentence. See also Lack of Parallelism.

    Weak

    The researchers will drill a succession of holes in the seafloor and thin pipes will be extended through which the researchers will lower equipment for sending sound waves through the rock and hydrate deposits.

    Improved

    The researchers will drill a succession of holes in the seafloor and they will extend thin pipes through which they will lower equipment for sending sound waves through the rock and hydrate deposits.

    --David Graham, "Harvesting Natural Gas from the Ocean Floor," Technology Review

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    Section 6.16

    Sequence of Tenses

    Choose the tenses of your verbs accurately to express the timing or sequence of events that you are describing. Often, the particular sequence of events that you are describing will require you to use several different verb tenses within a single sentence or paragraph. Although it is appropriate to vary your verb tenses in accordance with the actual timing of the events, you should avoid shifting tenses unnecessarily.

    Pay special attention to how you express the sequence of tenses when describing the timing of events or when paraphrasing ideas.

    Sequence of Tenses and Timing of Events

    To emphasize that an event occurred or was completed before another event, use a form of the perfect auxiliary have.

    Past Perfect

    By 150 B.C., the Greeks had accurately determined the shape and dimensions of the Earth and the distance of the Moon, but had not managed to probe very far beyond that.

    --Isaac Asimov, The Universe

    Infinitive

    The reaction appears to have finished already.

    To express that an event in a participial phrase occurred at the same time as the event described in the main clause, use a present participle.

    Arising from the complex flow and interaction of information, life is a dynamic process.

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine (modified)

    To emphasize that an event in a participial phrase occurred before the event described in the main clause, use a perfect auxiliary and a past participle.

    Having examined the peculiar data carefully, the investigators concluded that the equipment was faulty.

    When writing formal documents, use the simple past tense to describe habitual actions. Although the modal would is often used to express past tense habitual actions, its use is generally restricted to spoken and informal contexts.

    Weak

    Before the development of anesthesia techniques, surgeons would prepare their patients for surgery by getting them drunk.

    Improved

    Before the development of anesthesia techniques, surgeons prepared their patients for surgery by getting them drunk.

    Sequence of Tenses and Paraphrasing

    When paraphrasing a written idea, introduce the paraphrase with a present tense verb (e.g., writes) and do not change the original verb tenses of the idea.

    In his book The Universe, Isaac Asimov seeks to trace the steps by which mankind's grasp of the universe widened and deepened.

    When paraphrasing an ongoing or future spoken idea, introduce the paraphrase with a present or future tense verb (e.g., says) and do not change the original verb tenses of the idea.

    Unacceptable

    At tomorrow's meeting, she will officially announce she will be chosen yesterday to lead the government research project.

    Acceptable

    At tomorrow's meeting, she will officially announce she was chosen yesterday to lead the government research project.

    When paraphrasing a previously spoken idea, introduce the paraphrase with a past tense verb (e.g., said) and change the verb tenses of the idea to match the tense of that verb.

    Unacceptable

    The engineer informed us that she is not able to field-test the device yesterday because it is raining.

    Acceptable

    The engineer informed us that she was not able to field-test the device yesterday because it was raining.

    If a previously spoken idea is a general fact that is always true or concerns a future event that has not yet occurred, you can either maintain the original verb tenses of the idea or shift them to past tense to match the tense of the verb you used to introduce the idea. Maintaining the original tense emphasizes the continuing validity of the idea, whereas shifting the verb tenses emphasizes the narrative quality of the paraphrase.

    Acceptable

    Von Neumann postulated that an automaton will need at least six elements: a computer, a sensor, a manipulator, a cutter, a fuser, and "girders" from which the automaton will be built and which encodes instructions to act as "memory." [continuing validity emphasized]

    Acceptable

    Von Neumann postulated that an automaton would need at least six elements: a computer, a sensor, a manipulator, a cutter, a fuser, and "girders" from which the automaton would be built and which would encode instructions to act as "memory." [narrative quality emphasized]

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine (modified)

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    Section 6.17

    Pronoun Reference

    Pronoun reference refers to the identification of a pronoun with its intended antecedent. Two common problems in pronoun reference are unclear pronoun reference and broad pronoun reference. Make sure all of your pronouns can be easily identified.

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    Section 6.17.1

    Unclear Pronoun Reference

    Use a pronoun instead of a noun only if the connection to the intended antecedent of the pronoun is quite strong. Make sure no other nouns with the same gender and number appear between your pronoun and its intended antecedent. Otherwise, your pronoun reference may be unclear.

    Weak

    When a second character arrives at the port before the first character has been unloaded, the port stores the second character in the same register, overwriting it.

    Improved

    When a second character arrives at the port before the first character has been unloaded, the port stores the second character in the same register as the first one, overwriting the first character.

    --Computer Telephony (modified)

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    Section 6.17.2

    Broad Pronoun Reference

    Use a demonstrative pronoun only if the connection to the intended antecedent of the pronoun is quite strong. Otherwise, your pronoun reference may be too broad, thus unclear.

    Weak

    The sophisticated computer sound system lets the user input pitch and duration from the MIDI keyboard. This facilitates musical transcription. [Does this refer to the sophisticated computer sound system, to letting the user, or to the inputting of pitch and duration?]

    Improved

    Sophisticated computer sound systems let the user input pitch and duration from the MIDI keyboard. This direct input facilitates musical transcription.

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    Section 6.18

    Pronoun Case

    A pronoun can appear in one of three cases: subjective, in which the pronoun functions as a subject; objective, in which the pronoun functions as an object; and possessive, in which the pronoun functions as a possessor. The following list shows the subjective, objective, and possessive forms of the personal pronouns.

    Subjective Objective Possessive
    I me my
    you you your
    he him his
    she her her
    it it its
    we us our
    they them their
    who whom whose
    whoever whomever whose ever

    Subjective Case

    We observed no difference in outcome between groups in which different intervals elapsed between the transposition of the gracilis muscle and the implantation of the stimulator. [We is the subject of the sentence.]

    --"Anal Dynamic Graciloplasty in the Treatment of Intractable Fecal Incontinence," New England Journal of Medicine (modified)

    Objective Case

    The results of this study show us that in a majority of cases, the transposed muscle can cope with a nonphysiologic level of action. [Us is the indirect object of show.]

    --"Anal Dynamic Graciloplasty in the Treatment of Intractable Fecal Incontinence," New England Journal of Medicine (modified)

    Possessive Case

    The patients in whom the technique was successful improved their professional effectiveness and social ease. [Their indicates possession of effectiveness and ease.]

    --"Anal Dynamic Graciloplasty in the Treatment of Intractable Fecal Incontinence," New England Journal of Medicine (modified)

    If you are unsure which pronoun form to use after a coordinating conjunction, test the pronoun by itself in the sentence, without the conjunction.

    Unacceptable

    John Conway, an Oxford professor, and some enthusiastic computer hackers worked together on the project. What Conway and them found was that even such a simple universe as Life could indeed exhibit sufficiently complex behavior to form computers, and possibly more. [What they found was . . . ]

    Acceptable

    What Conway and they found was that even such a simple universe as Life could indeed exhibit sufficiently complex behavior to form computers, and possibly more.

    Unacceptable

    Playing with various Life patterns became a full-time obsession for Conway and they.

    Acceptable

    Playing with various Life patterns became a full-time obsession for Conway and them.

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine (modified)

    If you are unsure which pronoun form to use after a coordinating conjunction, do not use a reflexive pronoun to avoid making a choice. Instead, test the pronoun by itself in the sentence, without the conjunction.

    Unacceptable

    Playing with various Life patterns became a full-time obsession for Conway and themselves.

    Acceptable

    Playing with various Life patterns became a full-time obsession for Conway and them.

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine (modified)

    Use objective pronouns as subjects of infinitives.

    In one of his experiments in the late 18th century, John Hunter, now considered the father of modern surgery, marked two points in a growing pig's bone and later found them to be the same distance apart in the mature animal. He thus showed that bones grow in length only at their ends.

    --Linglei Xu, "Bone Talk," Scitech Magazine (modified)

    Use possessive pronouns with gerunds.

    Although her calculating the necessary response based on incomplete data was unorthodox, the desired results were nevertheless achieved.

    Use whom as an object, who as a subject.

    Unacceptable

    The project was awarded to the engineer whom was most familiar with the site and its problems.

    Acceptable

    The project was awarded to the engineer who was most familiar with the site and its problems.

    Many writers and speakers use who for both subjects and objects. This is widely accepted in informal contexts, but in formal writing, use only whom for the objective case.

    Acceptable

    The project was awarded to an engineer whom I know well.

    Acceptable

    I spoke to the engineer to whom the project was awarded.

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    Section 7.1

    Abstract and General Language

    Clear writing consists of specific, carefully chosen words, not abstract and general language. Prose cluttered with language that is overly abstract, ornate, or vague becomes unreadable, either too dense or too vague to be understandable.

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    Section 7.2

    Vague Language

    Although the amount of detail in your writing will depend on your audience, use specific facts whenever possible. These facts make the difference between vague assertions and accurate scientific reporting.

    Weak

    The team detected above-normal radioactivity levels at Station 6.

    Improved

    The team detected above-normal radioactivity levels of 2.4 × 106 d/m beta-gamma at Station 6.

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    Section 7.3

    Ornate Language

    Use the simplest, most direct words possible. Used for their own sake, ornate words simply distract the reader from your main point. See Wordiness.

    Weak

    This peak is theorized to be resultant from two competing effects: driving force and velocity.

    Improved

    This peak is believed to result from two competing effects: driving force and velocity.

    Weak

    There were several known facts about spherulite growth that had a bearing on my interpretation of results.

    Improved

    Several facts about spherulite growth influenced my interpretation of results.

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    Section 7.4

    Technical Terms

    Technical terms are an essential part of all technical and scientific writing. Each field and specialty typically uses a vocabulary that relays a variety of specialized concepts by means of technical language. These special terms convey concentrated meanings that have been built up over significant periods of study of a field. The value of a specialized set of terms lies in the way each term condenses a mass of information into a single word. Technical terminology is often thought of as a shorthand, a way of gaining great depth and accuracy of meaning with economy of words. Technical terms often blend readily into formulae and mathematical manipulation, a term such as force being folded into a formula such as f = ma. This quantification allows the concept to be manipulated mathematically.

    Technical terms can also lead to a great density of prose that is difficult to understand, even for the specialized reader. Observe these four principles when using specialized terminology:

    • Match terminology to the ability of the audience. You may use a term with great accuracy and still not reach your audience. It is important that you be aware of your audience's level of understanding. If they are not experts in your field, you will need to substitute more general terms for your specialized terms. That means that you may not be able to write with great accuracy about your topic.

    • Use terms with consistency. Be sure that you use the same term for a given item each time. If you shift from using mass to using weight in referring to the quantity of an object, if at first you call a tool a spanner and later call it a wrench, or if you shift from the Kelvin scale to Centigrade for measuring temperature, you may confuse the reader.

    • Provide clear definitions or explanations of unfamiliar terms. If you are using a specialized term that is not widely used in your audience, even if the audience is an expert one, be sure you provide a clear definition of your term.

    • Use a terminology list when you are introducing a variety of new terms into your discussion. The use of a list, which is generally placed before your introduction or in an appendix, can greatly aid a reader who wants to remind himself or herself of what you mean by the term.

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    Section 7.5

    Biased Language

    Avoid language that could be interpreted as biased on the basis of sex, age, physical ability, or ethnic or racial identity. Instead, use language that is inclusive and avoids unintended stereotypes, and refer to people and groups using labels they prefer.

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    Section 7.5.1

    Sexist Language

    Avoid using masculine pronouns (he, his, and him) for generic references that could apply to either gender. Instead, edit in one of the following ways:

    • Use both a masculine and a feminine pronoun, such as him or her (but avoid him/her).

    • Make the antecedent and the pronoun plural, making other changes as necessary.

    • Rewrite the sentence to eliminate the pronoun.

    Unacceptable

    Every candidate for the scholarship must submit his application by June 1.

    Acceptable

    Every candidate for the scholarship must submit his or her application by June 1.

    Acceptable

    Candidates for the scholarship must submit their applications by June 1.

    Acceptable

    Every candidate for the scholarship must submit an application by June 1.

    Although using the plural pronoun their to refer to an indefinite singular antecedent is becoming common in speech ("Every doctor has their specialty"), this usage is not acceptable in most written work.

    Use terms such as humans or the human race instead of man and mankind, and find substitutes for most occupational designations that include the word man.

    UNACCEPTABLE ACCEPTABLE
    man, mankind humans, the human race, people
    mailman, postman mail carrier, postal worker
    policeman, fireman police officer, firefighter
    businessmen business executives, business people
    congressmen members of congress, state representatives
    councilmen council members
    spokesman representative, advocate
    chairman chair, chairperson

    Unacceptable

    Early man was shorter and stockier than mankind today.

    Acceptable

    Early humans were shorter and stockier than people today.

    Unacceptable

    Local businessmen have contributed to funds for the aid of injured firemen and policemen.

    Acceptable

    The local business community has contributed to funds for the aid of injured firefighters and police officers.

    Finally, do not include information that indicates a person's sex unnecessarily, and treat the titles of men and women comparably.

    Unacceptable

    Terry Harris, a well-known female productivity consultant, will advise the committee headed by Mr. Todd Sui.

    Acceptable

    Terry Harris, a well-known productivity consultant, will advise the committee headed by Todd Sui.

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    Section 7.5.2

    Ageist Language

    Senior citizens has become a catchall term for the country's older population, but many find it off-putting because of its political connotations. Similarly, the elderly implies feebleness to some. When referring to members of this group, try to find a label that describes more spcifically the population or person you have in mind: people over sixty-five, retirees, octogenarians. More generically, the term older people, although vague, impies nothing negative. Of course, avoid disparaging terms, as well as informal ones such as old folks, seniors, and golden agers. More importantly, avoid langauge that stereotypes older people as mentally or physically enfeebled.

    Unacceptable

    Dr. Frank Martinez, a senior citizen, continues to maintain a vigorous practice despite his age.

    Acceptable

    Dr. Frank Martinez, now seventy years old, continues to maintain a vigorous practice.

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    Section 7.5.3

    Language Biased against People with Disabilities

    The terms disability and disabled are generally preferred over handicap or crippled. More "positive" labels, such as physically challenged and differently abled, may occasionally be appropriate, although many people with disabilities find such euphemisms offensively trivializing. When referring to individuals with specific disabilities, first be sure that noting the disability is necessary. If it is, refer to it in a way that does not define the person by the disability. If it is not, do not mention it at all.

    Unacceptable

    Debbie Stevens, a blind seventh grader at Riverview Junior High, won third prize in the county public-speaking competition.

    Acceptable

    Debbie Stevens, a seventh grader at Riverview Junior High, won third prize in the county public-speaking competition.

    Unacceptable

    Paraplegic James Alton competes in marathons with other crippled racers who train in wheelchairs.

    Acceptable

    James Alton, an attorney whose legs were paralyzed in an automobile accident, competes in marathons with other disabled racers who train in wheelchairs.

    In general, use terminology that treats a disability or an illness neutrally rather than negatively.

    Unacceptable Acceptable
    cancer victim, AIDS victim cancer patient, person with AIDS
    suffers from diabetes is diabetic
    confined/bound to a wheelchair uses a wheelchair
    dying of cancer living with cancer

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    Section 7.5.4

    Ethnically or Racially Biased Language

    Clearly, ethnic and racial insults are unacceptable in professional writing. Less clear-cut, however, are the labels that are most acceptable for identifying specific ethnic and racial groups. Following are some general guidelines.

    • Both black and African American are generally acceptable (although some members of this community prefer one or the other). The phrase people of color is sometimes used to include other racial groups, particularly for political purposes. The labels Negro and colored are generally not acceptable.

    • Depending to some extent on regional preference, people with roots in Latin America refer to themselves as Hispanic, Latino/Latina, or Chicano/Chicana, or by place of origin (Cuban American, Puerto Rican). Except for specific audiences or individuals, Latino is generally acceptable.

    • The preference is for Asian or Asian American rather than Oriental. Again, specific groups may prefer labels based on country of origin (Japanese American, Korean).

    • Native American has gained favor over Indian. Depending on context, you might more accurately refer to a specific tribe or tribes.

    • In Canada the official term for local native people is Inuit rather than Eskimo. Many Alaskan natives also prefer this term.

    • Increasingly, people of mixed racial heritage are lobbying to be recognized as such, rather than being identified by a specific racial designation. Respect such concerns when appropriate.

    Another concern is language that may suggest ethnic or racial stereotypes. Avoid unsupported generalizations about racial or ethnic groups, as well as racially based assumptions about individuals.

    Unacceptable

    With the simple nobility that characterizes his people, Onondaga Indian leader Leon Shenandoah acted as a spiritual and political advocate for the Iroquois Confederacy until his death in 1996.

    Acceptable

    With directness and integrity, Onondaga leader Leon Shenandoah acted as a spiritual and political advocate for the Iroquois Confederacy until his death in 1996.

    Include references to ethnicity or race only when relevant. Avoid using pronouns that assume that "we" are of one race and "they" are of another.

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    Section 8

    Punctuation

    Punctuate your prose in order to help clarify how words, clauses, and sentences fit together.

    Many scientific and technical organizations have detailed style guides outlining appropriate and inappropriate uses of punctuation for technical documents in their respective disciplines. Follow the appropriate style in your particular field.

    Detailed information on punctuation marks is given in the following entries:

    Periods .

    Commas ,

    Colons :

    Semicolons ;

    Question marks ?

    Exclamation points !

    Apostrophes '

    Quotation marks " "

    Hyphens -

    Dashes --

    Parentheses ( )

    Brackets [ ]

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    Section 8.1

    Periods

    Use periods to indicate the end of declarative or imperative sentences.

    The Newcomen engine utilizes the condensation of steam to create a partial vacuum beneath a piston.

    Expand the system's bandwidth.

    Failing to place a period after a complete sentence may produce a comma splice or fused sentence. Placing a period at the end of an incomplete sentence may produce a sentence fragment. In technical writing, do not use exclamation points except after warnings or caution statements. (See Exclamation Points.)

    In addition to ending sentences, periods have the following other functions.

    Lists

    Use a period after numbers or letters in an enumerated list.

    Quantum theory has three main types of interaction:

    1. strong

    2. weak

    3. electrical

    End each item in an enumerated list with a period if one or more items in the list are complete sentences. (For the sake of parallelism, normally all items or none should be complete sentences.)

    Sixty years of research have produced the following findings:

    1. Low-calorie diets extend the life span of rats up to 30 percent.

    2. The reduction of caloric intake is the only intervention that has demonstrably been shown to slow aging in rodents.

    3. Caloric restriction initiated in mice at early middle age can extend the maximum life span by 10 to 20 percent and can oppose the development of cancer.

    If a vertical list completes a sentence begun in the introduction to the list, the final period is omitted unless the items in the list are separated by commas or semicolons.

    The status line contains the current file name

    window number

    display modes

    or

    The mouse lets you move around the spreadsheet;

    position the cursor within a cell during Edit mode;

    highlight menu items;

    page through help screens.

    Decimal Points

    Periods stand for decimal points within numbers.

    166.9

    6.02

    3.141516

    Omitted or Skipped Texts

    Use ellipsis points, three periods with spaces between and on both sides, to indicate omitted portions of a quotation.

    Rolling inoculated cultures at 0.1 to 0.3 rpm may enhance viral isolations and can enhance CPE and viral yields for enteroviruses.

    Rolling inoculated cultures at 0.1 to 0.3 rpm . . . can enhance CPE and viral yield for enteroviruses.

    --Taniya Sarkar, Wei Zhao, and Nurul H. Sarkar, "Expressions of jun Oncogene in Rodent and Human Breast Tumors," World Wide Web Journal of Biology

    If the omitted portion follows a sentence period (or other end punctuation), retain the end punctuation before the ellipsis points.

    One can understand the spirit and characteristics of quantum electrodynamics without including this technical detail of polarization. But Im sure youll all feel uncomfortable unless I say something about what Ive been leaving out. Photons, it turns out, come in four different varieties, called polarizations, that are related geometrically to the directions of space and time.

    One can understand the spirit and characteristics of quantum electrodynamics without including this technical detail of polarization. . . . Photons, it turns out, come in four different varieties, called polarizations, that are related geometrically to the directions of space and time.

    ----Richard Feynman, QED

    Retain other punctuation marks that precede or follow the skipped portion for clarity and precision.

    The earth's atmosphere is constantly shimmering because of moving pockets of air and changes in temperature, and such shimmering causes passing light rays to bend one way then another. In effect, the shifting atmosphere acts as a rapidly changing lens, smearing out and defocusing images.

    The earth's atmosphere is constantly shimmering . . . . , smearing out and defocusing images.

    --Alan Lightman, Ancient Light

    Abbreviations

    Use a period after certain abbreviations, especially those that themselves spell words.

    Dr. Max Laue

    Q.E.D.

    in.

    If an abbreviation ending in a period comes at the end of a sentence, do not attach an additional period to the sentence.

    The system shut down at 2:05 p.m.

    Periods with Other Punctuation Marks

    Place a period inside quotation marks.

    In Physics and Reality, Einstein wrote, "The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking."

    Place a period after the parenthesis or bracket at the end of a sentence (unless the parentheses or brackets enclose a compete new sentence).

    One such by-product is the superoxide radical (O2·-). [The dot in the formula represents the unpaired electron.]

    --Richard Weindruch, "Caloric Restriction and Aging," Scientific American

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    Section 8.2

    Commas

    Use commas to keep your writing clear. Omitted or incorrectly used, commas can cause confusion or even change meaning. Commas should be used with the following elements:

    Introductory elements

    Coordinating conjunctions joining independent clauses

    Elements in a series

    Coordinate modifiers

    Nonrestrictive modifiers

    Parenthetic elements

    Elliptical constructions

    Commas also have other specialized uses.

    See also Superfluous Commas and Placement of Commas with other Punctuation for guidelines on avoiding unnecessary or incorrect use of commas and placing commas correctly.

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    Section 8.2.1

    Introductory Elements

    Use commas to set off transitional words and phrases, introductory clauses, or introductory phrases to signal where the introductory element finishes and the main part starts.

    Transitional Words and Phrases

    Place a comma after a transitional word or phrase that begins a sentence.

    Moreover, the opening of an export market would help expand the market for key escrow encryption.

    In addition, several companies and individuals have proposed commercial key escrow approaches.

    --Dorothy E. Denning, "The Case for Clipper," Technology Review

    Introductory Clauses

    Place a comma after an introductory dependent clause.

    Although key escrow is voluntary, critics say that the introduction of Clipper points national policy in a disturbing direction.

    Introductory Prepositional or Verbal Phrases

    Normally, use a comma after an introductory prepositional or verbal phrase. However, you may omit the comma after a short introductory phrase if no ambiguity is possible.

    For the first time, researchers have used DNA analysis to identify the animal tissue in 4,000-year-old rock paintings.

    --"Science and the Citizen," Scientific American

    Despite the error the experiment was successful.

    Combining surface area with depth, we calculated the volume of the pond.

    Do not place a comma after an introductory participial or gerund phrase if the phrase forms part of the subject or verb of the sentence.

    Combining surface area with depth was our principal mthod for calculating the volume of the pond.

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    Section 8.2.2

    Coordinating Conjunctions Joining Independent Clauses

    Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses. However, if the clauses are very short and closely related, you may omit the comma.

    Unacceptable

    In almost all illicit markets, only the tip of the iceberg is visible and there is no reason why the nuclear-materials black market should be an exception.

    Acceptable

    In almost all illicit markets, only the tip of the iceberg is visible, and there is no reason why the nuclear-materials black market should be an exception.

    --Phil Williams and Paul N. Woessner, "The Real Threat of Nuclear Smuggling," Scientific American

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    Section 8.2.3

    Elements in a Series

    Use a comma to separate items in a series. Although placing a final comma before the coordinating conjunction is often considered optional, omitting it can sometimes cause confusion. Consequently, most scientific and technical writing routinely uses a final comma in a series to prevent possible ambiguities.

    His intellectual acuity, diverse interests, frail physique, and ethereal personality made Oppenheimer a man of legendary proportions. [In this sentence, omitting the final comma would not cause confusion. Still, it is good practice in scientific and technical writing to always include the final comma in a series.]

    Weak

    Contemporary physics is still exploring neutron stars, black holes and the penetration of electrons through potential barriers. [The omission of the final comma before and causes ambiguity: are black holes and the penetration of electrons through potential barriers specific topics connected to the general subject of neutron stars, or are they separate items?]

    Improved

    Contemporary physics is still exploring neutron stars, black holes, and the penetration of electrons through potential barriers.

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    Section 8.2.4

    Coordinate Modifiers

    Use a comma between coordinate modifiers. Modifiers are coordinate if they modify the same word. You can test to see if the modifiers are coordinate by inserting and between them. If the description still makes sense, then the modifiers are coordinate.

    Ebola viruses are known as filoviruses for their long, filamentlike appearance under a microscope. [Long and filamentlike modify the appearance of the virus equally, so a comma is needed between them.]

    --"Research Notes," Science News

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    Section 8.2.5

    Nonrestrictive Modifiers

    Use commas to set off nonrestrictive modifiers. A nonrestrictive modifier is usually introduced by which and contains information that is not essential to establishing the meaning of what it modifies. See Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers.

    Infectious diseases, which antibiotics and vaccines once promised to banish from our shores, have returned with a vengeance.

    --Jonathan Tucker, "Invaders from the Rainforest: Review of The Hot Zone by Richard Preston," Technology Review

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    Section 8.2.6

    Parenthetic Elements

    Use commas to set off parenthetic elements.

    Oppenheimer became known, of course, for leading the physicists who built the atomic bomb at Los Alamos Laboratory.

    --John S. Rigden, "J. Robert Oppenheimer: Before the War," Scientific American (modified)

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    Section 8.2.7

    Elliptical Constructions

    Use a comma to indicate the omission of a word or words readily understood from the context.

    In the United States there are ninety-two scanners; in Europe, eighty-five; in all of Africa, six. [The commas indicate the omission of the words there are.]

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    Section 8.2.8

    Specialized Uses of Commas

    In numbers with five or more digits, Anglo-American usage dictates that there be commas before groups of three digits, counting from the right, except for a group of three digits at the beginning of the number.

    Customers reported a total of 212,413 hardware malfunctions.

    Use commas to separate adjacent numbers.

    In 1994, 212 cases had been diagnosed.

    Use commas to separate items in an address.

    Einstein then moved to Princeton, New Jersey.

    Use commas to set off the year in dates expressed in the month-day-year sequence.

    Greenberg began the project on July 2, 1992.

    Omit commas when only the month and the year are stated.

    Greenberg began the project in July 1992.

    In dates written in the day-month-year sequence, the comma is omitted.

    Greenberg began the project on 2 July 1992.

    Use commas to separate certain elements or subelements of a bibliographic group in a reference list or bibliography if called for by the documentation style you are following.

    Smith, P. R., B. Coleman, and I. Waitz, "The Redesign of O-Ring Seals."

    In representing normal human karyotypes and chromosomal aberrations, place a comma between the total number of chromosomes and the X and Y symbols for sex chromosomes.

    46,XX [normal female karyotype]
    46,XY [normal male karyotype]
    49,XXXY [Triple X Syndrome]

    In chemical formulas, use commas to separate letters and numbers identifying the location of an atom or group in a molecule.

    [2,3-3H]serine

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    Section 8.2.9

    Superfluous Commas

    Except after an introductory dependent clause, do not use a comma to separate a dependent clause from a main clause unless the dependent clause provides nonessential information. See also Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers.

    Unacceptable

    Ever since the atomistic view of matter came to be accepted, it has been a burning question, how to see into the microworld of molecular chemistry.

    Acceptable

    Ever since the atomistic view of matter came to be accepted, it has been a burning question how to see into the microworld of molecular chemistry.

    --Adapted from Philip Ball, Designing the Molecular World

    Do not set off a clause that is essential to the sentence. Such clauses often begin with that.

    Unacceptable

    Systematic surveys of the ocean floor revealed, that there were submarine mountain ranges, that extended for thousands of kilometers.

    Acceptable

    Systematic surveys of the ocean floor revealed that there were submarine mountain ranges that extended for thousands of kilometers.

    Do not use a comma to separate the subject from the rest of the sentence.

    Unacceptable

    A biosensor that produces a changing electrical signal in response to levels of glucose in the bloodstream of diabetics, could be used to control the release of insulin so as to maintain the concentration of blood sugar at a steady, safe level.

    Acceptable

    A biosensor that produces a changing electrical signal in response to levels of glucose in the bloodstream of diabetics could be used to control the release of insulin so as to maintain the concentration of blood sugar at a steady, safe level.

    --Adapted from Philip Ball, Designing the Molecular World

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    Section 8.2.10

    Placement of Commas with Other Punctuation

    Place commas inside quotation marks but outside parentheses.

    The University classified the study as an "experiment," which doubled the time needed for approval by the Committee on Research.

    The manual contains a lengthy, though incomplete (and somewhat obscure), description of the compiler.

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    Section 8.3

    Colons

    Use colons for the following purposes:

    To set off and emphasize lists

    The market for photovoltaic power systems includes the following items: intrusion alarms, flood monitors, calculators, and telephone call boxes.

    or

    The market for photovoltaic power systems includes the following items:
    • intrusion alarms
    • flood monitors
    • calculators
    • telephone call boxes

    Anyone communicating via computer needs a security system that ensures three essential requirements: confidentiality, authentication, and trust.

    or

    Anyone communicating via computer needs a security system that ensures three essential requirements:
    • confidentiality
    • authentication
    • trust

    (Begin each element of lists, series, or phrases with lowercase letters.)

    To set off and emphasize quotations

    The contract reads: "DL-400 coaxial cable shall be used for all platform instrument installations at Site 5, unless a specific exception is justified in the approved work order."

    Kulik noted: "Even potatoes are probably much better guarded today than radioactive materials."

    --Phil Williams, and Paul N. Woessner, "The Real Threat of Nuclear Smuggling," Scientific American

    (Place colons outside quotation marks.)

    To set off and emphasize explanations and appositional elements

    In designing the tachometer, the team first posed a question: What operations are needed on the input signal in order to generate the desired output?

    The projects have, however, been able to measure the effects of caloric restriction on so-called biomarkers of aging: attributes that generally change with age and may help predict the future span of health or life.

    --Richard Weindruch, "Caloric Restriction and Aging," Scientific American

    This system currently operates in a strictly one-sided fashion: the machine makes sure the person who inserted the card is its legitimate owner by asking for a secret password, but the cardholder must blindly trust that the machine has not been tampered with.

    While thinking about this problem, we were reminded of an access-control system with similar demands that is used successfully worldwide on a daily basis: passports.

    --Thomas Beth, "Confidential Communication on the Internet," Scientific American

    To express ratios

    The ratio of drag torque to bearing friction torque cannot exceed 3:1.

    The anti-GAP 43, anti-MAP 2, and anti-synaptophysin antibodies were diluted 1:1000, 1:300, and 1:100, respectively, in phosphate-buffered saline containing 10% bovine serum albumin.

    --Andreas Schwarz et al., "A Regulatory Role for Sphingolipids in Neuronal Growth," Journal of Chemical Biology

    To separate units of time

    The main thruster engines ignited at at 7:05 a.m. EDT.

    Thu Mar 16 03:21:44 1995

    To separate elements in a citation (in certain documentation styles)

    E. F. Lyon, "Airport Surface Traffic Automation," Lincoln Laboratory Journal 4:151 (1991).

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    Section 8.4

    Semicolons

    Use semicolons to join two independent clauses or to separate parts of a sentence that have commas in them.

    To Join Two Independent Clauses

    The system has three beam launchers; two are in the two-tube combiner, and one is in the OP receiver.

    To Separate Sentence Elements with Commas

    Italicize titles of journals, books, newsletters, and manuals; letters, words, terms, and equation symbols; foreign words; and names of specific vessels.

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    Section 8.5

    Question Marks

    Use a question mark to end an interrogative sentence.

    Have past efforts to develop an AIDS vaccine been based on the wrong approach?

    Use a question mark to change a declarative or imperative sentence into a question.

    Their testing of the system was exhaustive? [declarative changed to interrogative]

    Start production on Friday? [imperative changed to interrogative]

    When a directive or a command is phrased as a question, a question mark is optional.

    Will you please send me a progress report by June 10?

    Will you speak to the vendor about the networking problems.

    Use a question mark to indicate uncertainty about data.

    The first synthesis was accomplished by Claude Poux (1810?-1897).

    Do not use a question mark at the end of an indirect question.

    James asked whether increasing the bandwidth of the network's backbone would significantly increase performance.

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    Section 8.6

    Exclamation Points

    In technical and scientific writing, use exclamation points only to end warning or caution statements or as specialized scientific notation. For other purposes, use a period or question mark.

    WARNING!

    Place the power supply latch in the locked position before plugging in the device! Failure to lock the power supply latch may result in severe injury!

    CAUTION!

    Do not continue if there are any files on the disk you wish to keep! The format procedure will destroy all files stored on the disk.

    Specialized Scientific Notation

    Use the exclamation point as a factorial symbol in mathematical notation.

    n!

    5!

     [represents 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1]

    Use the exclamation point as a phonetic symbol in linguistic representations.

    Some interesting counterexamples appear in !Kung syntax.

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    Section 8.7

    Apostrophes

    Use apostrophes to form the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns, and contractions. Optionally, apostrophes may also be used in the plurals of abbreviations and numbers.

    Form the possessive of singular nouns and indefinite pronouns and of plural nouns that do not end in -s by adding -'s.

    Einstein's theory

    bacterium's [The plural is bacteria.]

    anyone's

    children's [The singular is child.]

    Also form the possessive of singular nouns that end in -s by adding -'s.

    moss's composition

    Yeats's letters

    Form the possessive of plural animate nouns that end in -s by adding only the apostrophe after the -s:

    supervisors' schedules

    species' locations

    Try to form the possessive of inanimate nouns by using the preposition of.

    composition of microchips

    position of the planets

    Optionally, use the apostrophe to form the plurals of acronyms and numbers. Be consistent, however, throughout a document. Always use the apostrophe to form the plurals of lowercase letters.

    R.E.M's or REM's or REMs

    386's or 386s

    x's

    Use the apostrophe to form standard contractions of certain words.

    it + is = it's

    we + will = we'll

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    Section 8.8

    Quotation Marks

    Unless the documentation style you are following specifies otherwise, use quotation marks (1) to enclose the names of articles, short reports, and other brief documents cited in your document or (2) to indicate direct quotations of speech or excerpts from other documents. Do not put quotation marks around a quotation in block form (that is, indented to set it off from the main text). Avoid using quotation marks for emphasis.

    To Enclose the Names of Articles, Short Reports, and Other Brief Documents

    The source of the design information is the 1982 article "Boundary Layer Development on Turbine Airfoil Suction Surfaces," which appeared in the Journal of Engineering for Power.

    To Indicate Direct Quotations of Speech or Excerpts from Other Documents

    As Vorhees has stated, "Simple adjustment of the control-gate voltages, Va and Vb, enables us to realize any phase between 0 and [p] relative to the state phase, q."

    Place periods and commas inside quotation marks; place semicolons and colons outside. Question marks (?) and exclamation marks (!) go inside the quotation marks if they are part of the material quoted and outside the quotation marks if they are not.

    Lightman begins his survey of the development of cosmological theories by posing questions such as "Has the universe existed forever?"

    What did Oppenheimer mean when, after the first atomic explosion, he said, "We thought of the legend of Prometheus"?

    For a quotation within a quotation, use single quotation marks unless the main quotation is in block form; if the main quotation is in block form, use double quotation marks for the quotation within it.

    Rimmer notes that Bohr "scolded his distinguished colleague finally in Einstein's own terms 'God does not throw dice. Nor is it our business to prescribe to God how he should run the world.'"

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    Section 8.9

    Hyphens

    Use hyphens to link

    Also use hyphens for the following purposes:

    In typewritten documents, a single hyphen repesents the typographical en dash, a dash the width of the letter n. Conventions for using hyphens differ from discipline to discipline. When in doubt about whether to hyphenate a word, check the appropriate style guide.

    To Link Certain Prefixes, Suffixes, Letters, and Numbers with Nouns

    Use hyphens to connect certain prefixes to nouns. In most scientific and technical styles, the following prefixes are usually followed by a hyphen:

    all-
    ex-
    half-
    quasi-
    self-
    hex-

    However, scientific and technical writing styles omit the hyphen between most prefixes, especially prefixes that are not words themselves. The following list of prefixes that normally are not followed by a hyphen is adapted from Scientific Style and Format by the Council of Biology Editors:

    aero electro meta pre
    after exo micro pro
    ante extra mid pseudo
    anti geo mid re
    astro hemo mini semi
    auto hyper multi sub
    bi hypo non super
    bio in over supra
    chemo infra photo trans
    co inter physio un
    counter iso poly
    de macro post

    When adding a prefix to a noun forms a homograph (a word with two meanings), use a hyphen for clarity.

    multiply multi-ply
    recover re-cover
    unionize un-ionize

    Use hyphens to connect numbers or letters used as prefixes to a noun.

    the T-cell

    10-cylinder

    Use a hyphen to connect any prefix to a capitalized noun.

    post-Newtonian universe

    ex-Soviet scientist

    In most cases, do not place a hyphen before a suffix. In most scientific and technical styles, however, the following suffixes are preceded by a hyphen.

    -designate
    -elect
    -type

    To Link Compound Nouns

    Use a hyphen to link compound nouns, especially when the lack of a hyphen would change the meaning of the term.

    light-year

    light year

    [The first term is a unit of measurement, not of time; the second pair of words, on the other hand, may indicate a year that is not heavy.]

    To Link Compound Modifiers

    Use a hyphen to connect compound modifiers to promote clarity and prevent ambiguity.

    laser-alignment process [compound modifier + noun]

    laser alignment [modifier + noun]

    the two-tube combiner

    wire-grid aperture cap [aperture cap for a wire grid]

    wire grid-aperture cap [a wire cap for a grid aperture]

    wire-grid level adjustment

    wire grid-level adjustment

    heavy-water cavity [a cavity for heavy water]

    heavy water cavity [a water cavity that is heavy]

    To Link Spelled-Out Numbers

    Use a hyphen to join spelled-out numbers from 21 through 99 and spelled-out fractions.

    twenty-one moving parts

    the thirty-third experiment

    four-fifths of the subjects

    To Divide Words

    In general, avoid dividing words. However, use hyphens to split words at the end of a line to prevent large spaces between words in justified text and noticeably uneven margins in unjustified text. The following guidelines for dividing words are adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style and the NASA Style Guide and the Council of Biology Editors' manual.

    • Divide words between syllables. If you are unsure of the syllabification, consult a standard dictionary.

      • com-pu-ter

    • Divide between the compound parts of compound words:

      • light-year

    • Divide after a prefix or before a suffix:

      • intra-system

      hyper-tension

      maintain-ability

    • Divide a word after any two-letter syllable within a word but do not divide a word before a final two-letter ending.

    • Do not divide a word in which the part beginning the next line will appear to be a separate word.

    • Do not divide the last word of a paragraph or page.

    To Stand for to or through Between Letters and Numbers

    Use hyphens to stand for through or to, especially in bibliographies and reference lists. (However, when a number, letter, or date is preceded by the word from, use the word to instead of a hyphen.)

    pages 25-63

    sections 15.2-15.8

    1901-1911

    from 1901 to 1911

    Specialized Uses

    Use a hyphen in the following circumstances:

    • To represent single bonds in chemical formulas:

      • (CH3)2-CH-CH2-CH(NH2)-OH

    • Between the spelled-out name of a chemical element and the mass number of the specific isotope:

      • carbon-14

    • Between sequences of amino acids:

      • Asp-His-Lys

    Suspended Hyphens

    If all unit modifiers in a series end with the same term, the term does not have to be repeated each time; for brevity you may suspend the hyphens and use the modified term only at the end of the series.

    The first-order, second-order, and third-order equations have all been solved.

    The first-, second-, and third-order equations have all been solved.

    2- and 3-phase controllers

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    Section 8.10

    Dashes

    Use dashes--sparingly--to indicate abrupt shifts in thought and to set off or emphasize appositional or parenthetical elements or interjections. In most cases, use commas or parentheses instead.

    Although we have made these comments with specific reference to water--only because of our familiarity with water--all pure substances exhibit the same behavior.

    In typewritten documents, use two hyphens (--) with no spaces between or around them to form a dash.

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    Section 8.11

    Parentheses

    Use parentheses to enclose qualifying detail that is of secondary importance to the main discussion. Use parentheses sparingly within sentences; commas often do the job better. Parentheses can also be used to enclose one or more entire sentences that add relevant but not essential detail to the main discussion.

    The laser-alignment system uses small-diameter (approximately 0.25 in.), optical-quality mirrors embedded in the reflectors.

    To make the piano's tone expressive, Brown files the crowns and shoulders (tops and sides) of each hammer to their proper shape if they are worn, fluffs up the hammer felt and, if necessary, brightens the tone by applying a lacquer solution under the crowns of the hammers.

    --James Boyk, "The Endangered Piano Technician," Scientific American

    The comparison between our data and models shows that for most of the Cascadia coast the locked zone is restricted to a swath 50 to 100 kilometers across that runs underneath the continental shelf. (It widens considerably only near the coast of northern Washington.)

    --Roy D. Hyndman, "Giant Earthquakes of the Pacific Northwest," Scientific American

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    Section 8.12

    Brackets

    Use brackets to set off an explanatory reference, your own comments, or corrections within material you are quoting.

    According to Smith, "Proton energy levels [in the accelerator] are consistently higher than expected."

    [These comments were made before Brodier became aware of Lightman's experiments.]

    Unless the documentation style you are following specifies otherwise, use the Latin term sic in brackets to indicate that material in a quotation is incorrect.

    Freedman stated, "Various Indo-European languages such as Rumanian, Hindi, Hungarian [sic], and Serbian exhibit similar morphological patterns." [Hungarian is not an Indo-European language.]

    Use brackets to enclose parenthetical material that is within material already in parentheses.

    The first extant cosmological theories were developed by the early Babylonians and Greeks. (See Alan Lightman, Ancient Light [Cambridge: Harvard University Press], pp. 5-9.)

    Use brackets to indicate the isotope of a specific chemical.

    [14C]urea

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    Section 9

    Mechanics

    Be consistent and precise in

    capitalizing words

    using italics

    abbreviating words

    using acronyms

    using numbers

    numbering pages, chapters, figures, and other elements of your document

    using symbols

    using equations

    the spelling of words

    Consult a style guide in your discipline for specific instructions on how to use these elements. Unless you are following a style guide that specifies otherwise, follow the conventions in this section.

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    Section 9.1

    Capitalization

    Although there are many specialized rules for capitalizing letters, the following four are the most common.

    1. Capitalize the first words of sentences, including sentences cited in quotations:

      2. The QA engineer has been quoted as saying, "The main source of connector failure found in the analysis is seal deformation caused by pressures in excess of 1000 psig."

    2. Capitalize proper names, including any particular person, object, place, project, institution, river, vessel, genus, culture, ethnic group, or formal job title:

      3. Project Athena Operation Empty Space
      National Aeronautics and Space Administration
      the aircraft carrier Kittyhawk Asian-American
      the White Nile Mars
      the University of California at Santa Cruz Air Force One
      Dean for Undergraduate Education Director of Operations

    3. Unless you are following a documentation style that specifies otherwise, capitalize titles of books, periodicals, published and unpublished reports, articles, and document sections:

      4. A Handbook of Chemical Processes

      Journal of the American Chemical Society

      A Report to the President on the Explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger [published report]

      "Report of the O-Ring Seal Design Team" [unpublished report]

      Benefits of Caloric Restriction [section of an article]

    4. Capitalize references to specific figures, tables, chapters, sections, equations:

      5. Chapter Two

      Equation 36

      Figure 10-3

      Appendix C

    Rules for Capitalizing Multiple-Word Titles and Proper Names

    Unless you are following a documentation style that specifies otherwise, observe the following rules for capitalizing multiple word titles and proper nouns.

    General Guidelines for Capitalizing Scientific Terms

    Each discipline has its own specific conventions for determining which terms should be capitalized. In general, scientific writing tends to minimize capitalized nouns. The following list summarizes some widely observed practices.

    • Capitalize and put in italics the phylum, class, order, family, and genus of plants and animals. Do not capitalize the species.

      • Homo sapiens

      Esox lucius

    • Capitalize the names of geological eras, periods, epochs, and series but do not capitalize the word indicating the amount of time:

      • Jurassic period

      Cenozoic era

    • Capitalize astronomical terms such as the names of galaxies, constellations, stars, planets and their satellites, and asteroids. However, the terms earth, sun, and moon are often not capitalized unless they appear in a sentence that refers to other astronomical bodies.

      • The sun is an ordinary star.

      Venus and Earth differ significantly in the composition of their atmospheres.

    • Do not capitalize medical terms except for any part of a term consisting of a proper noun:

      • infectious mononucleosis

      brachial plexus

      Parkinson's disease

    • Do not capitalize physical laws, theorems, principles, or constants except for attached proper names:

      • special theory of relativity

      Boyle's law

      the third law of thermodynamics

      Avogadro's number

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    Section 9.2

    Italics

    Unless you are following a style guide that specifies otherwise, observe the following conventions.

    Italicize titles of journals, books, newsletters, and manuals; letters, words, terms, and equation symbols that are being highlighted for discussion; foreign words; words or phrases that are being emphasized; and names of specific vessels.

    Titles of Journals, Books, Newsletters, and Manuals

    the Journal of the American Chemical Society

    Aviation Week and Space Technology

    Handbook of Physical Constants

    Operator's Manual: TD-100 B&S Spectroscope

    Pollution Abstracts

    Letters, Words, Terms, and Equation Symbols That Are Being Highlighted for Discussion

    If either 1 or 2 is negative, Equation 8 describes a convex reflecting surface.

    How does one program the computer, for example, to pronounce the letter combination gh? In the word thorough, gh has no sound; in enough, it is pronounced f; in ghost, it is pronounced g.

    The term dielectric is used here to refer to all. . .

    Foreign Words

    Against the criminally stubborn conviction of the professional officer corps that courage, elan, and naked steel must carry the day, the machine gun was the ultimate argument.

    Bohr returned to Göttingen as a Privatdozent working under Born. [In German all nouns are capitalized.]

    --Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb

    The SPOT (for système probatoire d'observation de la terre) views the area in question every 2.5 days.

    Emphasis

    The Chernobyl reactor surged from its standby level to 50 percent of its capacity in just 10 seconds.

    Names of Specific Vessels

    Do not italicize the model's class, manufacturer, or model number.

    The experiment is scheduled to be performed during a future mission of the space shuttle Enterprise.

    He returned on a Boeing 757.

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    Section 9.3

    Abbreviations

    Unless you are following a style guide that specifies otherwise, observe the following conventions.

    Abbreviations, shortened forms of words, are commonly employed in scientific and technical writing. However, avoid unnecessary abbreviations, which can confuse a reader. Some abbreviations are always followed by a period. With other abbreviations, however, the use of the period varies from discipline to discipline. Similarly some abbreviations are capitalized and others are not. Consult a style guide in your professional field for appropriate rules regarding capitalization and periods.

    The following list outlines common and appropriate uses of abbreviations.

    1. Abbreviate terms and words in graphics and bibliographies to save space.

    2. Always abbreviate certain words and phrases in your text. Those always abbreviated include

      3. Mr., Ms., B.A., Ph.D., B.C., B.C.E.

      cf. (from the Latin for "compare")

      et al. (from the Latin "and others")

      i.e. (from the Latin "that is")

      e.g. (from the Latin "for example")

    3. Abbreviate standard units of measure. Lists of standard units of measure are found in most dictionaries and textbooks. The following are some standard abbreviations of units of measure.

      4. C Centigrade F Fahrenheit K Kelvin
      in. inch cu. in. (or in.3) s second
      m meter cm centimeter kg kilogram
      A ampere mol mole L liter
      rad radian C coulomb V volt
      J joule Hz hertz W watt

    4. In general, avoid inventing abbreviations. However, if you need to coin an abbreviation to make a word fit into some limited space, such as in a drawing or table, the most common approach is to cut the word off, five letters long or so, after the consonant following the first, second, or last syllable. Thus magnetic becomes mag. and environmental becomes envir.

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    Section 9.4

    Acronyms

    Unless you are following a style guide that specifies otherwise, observe the following conventions.

    Use acronyms to shorten phrases in order to save space or to avoid awkward repetition of phrases. Acronyms are abbreviations of the things they represent and are formed by combining the first, and sometimes other, letters of the principal words.

    AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
    RAM random-access memory
    ROM read-only memory
    DOS Disk Operating System
    FTP file transfer protocol
    HTML Hypertext Markup Language
    HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

    Guidelines for Using Acronyms

    • Capitalize acronyms, and do not use periods. When acronyms become integrated into the language as common nouns (for example, laser, radar, or scuba), they are no longer capitalized.

    • When using an acronym the first time, spell the phrase out and follow it with the acronym in parentheses. Then you may use the acronym by itself.

      • Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) was never intended to be a common programming language. The original assumption was that most word processing applications would automatically generate HTML code.

      This convention is necessary to avoid ambiguity. NMR, for example, may refer to nuclear magnetic resonance or to the National Maritime Repository.

    • If your prose is laden with acronyms, provide a list of terms in the front matter of your document as a guide to the reader.

    • To form plurals of acronyms, add a lowercase s without an apostrophe:

      • The number of MDs in the region has declined.

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    Section 9.5

    Numbers

    Unless you are following a style guide that specifies otherwise, observe the following guidelines in using numbers.

    • In general, use arabic numerals instead of words in scientific and technical writing for both cardinal and ordinal numbers:

      • 3 subroutines 6 braces 61 amino acids
      the 3rd subroutine the 6th brace the 61st amino acid

    • In some scientific and technical styles, however, write out numbers between one and ten and two-word fractions that do not follow an integer:

      • three subroutines six braces 61 amino acids
      1½ hours one-half hour

    • If you need to begin a sentence with a number, spell it out. It is better, however, to reword the sentence, if possible.

      • Thirty-two workstations were provided by the university.

      The university provided 32 workstations.

    • If one number immediately follows another in a sentence, spell out the one that can be expressed in fewer words. Try, however, to express units of measure in arabic numerals. Another solution is to reword the sentence.

      • We then prepared eight 20 ml samples.

      We then prepared 8 samples of 20 ml each.

    • Always spell out the pronoun one:

      • In protecting the privacy of individuals, one must always consider all the possible ways data can be accessed and used.

    • Use numerals for dates, time of day, pages, figures, and notes:

      • 5 August 1994

      1 p.m.

      page 43

      Ref. 6

      Figure 43

    • Use arabic numerals followed by the percent sign, (%), to express percentages, except when the number begins a sentence:

      • Only 3% of the systems crashed during the test period.

      Three percent of the systems crashed during the test period.

    British and American Formation of Numbers

    • Form integers of two to four digits without any punctuation or spacing:

      • 21

      412

      8024

    • Use the period (.) to indicate the decimal point and use an initial zero (0) for numbers less than 1.0:

      31.3

      1.41

      0.414

    • Form numbers of five digits or more by using a comma (,) to mark off groups of three digits, starting at the decimal point:

      • 10,000

      12,341

      12,341.34

      12,432,421

    European and International Standards for Formation of Numbers

    • Form integers of two to four digits without any punctuation or spacing:

      • 21

      412

      8024

    • Use the comma (,) to indicate the decimal point and use an initial zero (0) for numbers less than 1,0:

      • 31,3

      1,41

      0,414

    • Form numbers of five digits or more by using a period (.) to mark off groups of three digits, starting at the decimal point:

      • 10.000

      12.341

      12.341,34

      12.432.421

    General Guidelines for Using Numbers in Nontechnical Prose

    When using numbers in nonscientific text, spell out numbers less than one hundred or numbers of any size that begin a sentence. In addition, spell out round numbers of any size and use arabic numerals followed by the terms million and billion to express numbers larger than one million.

    seventy-three hours

    173 hours

    nine hundred thousand

    two billion

    2.3 million

    146 billion

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    Section 9.6

    Enumeration

    Unless you are following a style guide that specifies otherwise, observe the following conventions.

    Use enumeration in reports and other documents to identify sequences of chapters, sections, page numbers, figures and tables, equations, footnotes, and appendixes. Lengthy reports may contain and enumerate all these items. Any technical or scientific document of more than one page, however, will at least enumerate its pages, as well as any other of these elements that are present.

    Chapter-Section Enumeration

    Of the two general enumeration systems widely used, the numerical system is clearer than the alphanumerical system. In the numerical system, the reader can always locate his or her place in the document from the single decimal number. 

    NUMERICAL SYSTEM    ALPHANUMERICAL SYSTEM
1                   I.   
1.1                      A.
1.2                      B.       
1.2.1                         1.
1.2.2                         2.
2                   II.
2.1                      A.
2.1.1                         1.
2.1.2                         2.
2.2                      B.

    Pagination

    Number the front matter in italic lowercase roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, and so on).

    Normally, number the pages in the body of the document with arabic numerals, starting with page 1. Number sequentially through page n at the end of the text, including all back matter. Some long reports and theses, however, employ a two-part numbering system that contains a numerical chapter prefix followed by a hyphen and then the page number of the chapter. The first page of Chapter 6, for example, would be numbered 6-1.

    Tables and Figures

    Number tables and figures sequentially as Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and so on. In long documents, however, table and figure numbers are often prefixed with a chapter number: Table 5-1 or Table 5.1, for example, refers to the first table of Chapter 5.

    Equations

    Number all equations discussed in the text sequentially, as Eq. 1, Eq. 2, Eq. 3, and so on. You do not have to number every equation that appears in the document because many equations are part of a series of intermediate steps that are not specifically discussed.

    Footnotes, Endnotes, and Reference Numbers

    See the discussion in Citing Sources and Listing References.

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    Section 9.7

    Symbols

    Use symbols consistently and in keeping with the common practice of your discipline.

    Biology, chemistry, engineering, mathematics, and physics, among many other fields, have extensive and precise systems to represent quantities, objects, and actions. Check with a relevant style guide, textbook, or handbook.

    If you are not certain that your readers will recognize a symbol, give the full spelling in parentheses the first time you use the symbol. If your document contains a large number of symbols that may be unfamiliar to your readers, consider including a list of symbols in the front matter, following the list of tables.

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    Section 9.8

    Equations

    Unless you are following a style guide that specifies otherwise, observe the following conventions.

    Integrate equations into the body of your document by including in the text one or more explicit references to each one and, if appropriate, a short explanation of each term.

    Include only the main equations in the body of the document. Detailed derivations and calculations, if appropriate, should be put in appendixes.

    Set off equations from the text by displaying them, centered on the longest line, and with equation numbers as shown.

    An ion in crossed electric and magnetic fields drifts at right angles to both fields with a velocity of

    [Image: Equation]
    (Eq. 7)

    where Vd is the drift velocity, Es is the magnitude of the static field, and B is the magnetic field strength. If Vd were to approach unity, the behavior of the electric . . .

    Guidelines for Displaying Equations

    • Align runover lines on the equals signs (=):

      • [Image: Equation]

    • Break an equation longer than one line according to the following order of preference:

    1. Immediately before the equals sign. Align the equals sign in the second line with the first operator in the first line.

    2. Immediately before an addition or subtraction sign (+ or -) that is not enclosed in parentheses, brackets, or braces. Align the addition or subtraction sign starting the second line with the equals sign in the first line.

    3. Immediately before a multiplication sign (×). Align the multiplication sign starting the second line with the equals sign in the first line.

    4. Between two sets of enclosures (parentheses, brackets, or braces). Begin the second line with an explicit multiplication sign aligned with the equals sign followed by the second enclosed set.

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    Section 9.9

    Spelling

    The rules and conventions for the spelling of Standard American English words are very complex and are beyond the scope of this handbook. Correct spelling, however, is extremely important in technical and scientific writing because it establishes a writer's credibility by displaying his or her care and precision in dealing with information. A reader may hesitate to trust the data or design recommendations of a technical document that contains careless misspellings.

    Here are a few suggestions to help ensure that your document is free of spelling errors.

    • Always proofread your document for misspellings. If you are writing on a word processor, always use the spell checker but do not rely on it alone; it cannot catch one word substituted for another (discreet for discrete) or a typographical error that is a word (cod instead of code).

    • Be consistent in the spelling of words in your document. Use the same dictionary when writing your first draft as when revising or editing the document.

    • If you first learned British or Commonwealth English, be careful to use American English spellings of words rather than British forms. The following list summarizes some of the most common differences between American English and British English spelling.

      • AMERICAN ENGLISH BRITISH ENGLISH
      center, fiber center, fibre
      color, labor, odor colour, labour, odour
      defense, offense defence, offence
      encyclopedia, medieval encyclopaedia, mediaeval
      enroll, fulfill enrol, fulfil
      organize, civilization organise, civilisation

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    Section 10

    Citing Sources and Listing References

    Whenever you include another person's information or wording in a document, you must acknowledge the source and include a citation that will tell the reader where you obtained it. If you do not do so, you deprive your reader of the ability to locate information that he or she might want to explore further. In addition, you may be committing intellectual theft, plagiarism.

    Mechanisms that allow a reader to verify the information presented in a document are essential parts of most types of technical and scientific writing. Procedures sections of technical and laboratory reports, for example, provide the reader with information sufficient to replicate both the method and the data described in the document.

    There are two basic and universal rules regarding the use of information in professional and, especially, academic writing:

    1. If you use the language of your source, you must quote it exactly, enclose it in quotation marks, and cite the source.

    2. If you use ideas or information that are not common knowledge, you must cite the source.

    Using the Language of Your Source Appropriately

    Acknowledging Sources

    Basic Structure and Formats of Citation Styles

    American Psychological Association (APA) Author-Date Style

    Modern Language Association (MLA) Author-Page Style

    Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) Note Citations

    Council of Biology Editors (CBE) Citation-Sequence System

    IEEE Citation Sequence System

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    Section 10.1

    Using the Language of Your Source Appropriately

    If you use the language of your source, quote the wording exactly. This is called a direct quotation. A direct quotation is either enclosed in quotation marks or indented on the page. If you omit part of the wording, use an ellipsis (three periods, four if necessary for punctuation to indicate the omission). In any case, several words in succession taken from another source constitute direct quotation and must be acknowledged. Indeed, a single word may constitute a direct quotation if it is a word closely identified with a particular author.

    A paraphrase employs source material by restating an idea in an entirely new form that is original in both sentence structure and word choice. Taking the basic structure from a source and substituting a few words is an unacceptable paraphrase and may be construed as plagiarism. Creating a new sentence by merging the wording of two or more sources is also plagiarism.

    The following examples illustrate the differences between acceptable paraphrase and plagiarism.

    Source Quotation

    A grand unified theory has long been the holy grail of physicists. Since ancient times, physicists have sought minimalist explanations of nature. Theories with four basic particles are considered better than theories of ten.

    --Alan Lightman, Ancient Light: Our Changing View of the Universe

    Unacceptable Paraphrase

    A grand unified theory has long been the central goal of scientists. Since the dawn of time, men of science have looked for minimalist explanations of natural phenomena. A theory with four elementary particles is considered better than a theory of ten.

    In the preceding passage, the writer has merely substituted a few words of his or her own for words in the source. The structure and the overall wording of the sentences, however, are Lightman's. Since the writer has borrowed Lightman's words as well as his ideas, the acknowledgment of Lightman as a source does not prevent this passage from being plagiarism.

    Unacceptable Paraphrase

    Physicists have long had the grand unified theory as their holy grail. Science always tries to give minimalist explanations for natural phenomena. The best theory is the one with the fewest elements.

    The structure of the individual sentences in the preceding passage is somewhat original, but the order of sentences is clearly taken from Lightman. In addition, the writer has used several phrases taken directly from the source, such as "minimalist explanations of nature." Borrowing such phrases without enclosing them in quotation marks makes the writer guilty of plagiarism.

    Acceptable Paraphrase

    Physicists have long sought a grand unified theory, since scientists have always preferred theories with the fewest elements (Lightman 106).

    This writer has reproduced much of the meaning of Lightman's passage but in a sentence that is original in structure and word choice. The only major words and phrases taken from Lightman are grand unified theory, theories, and physicists. Such duplication is acceptable, since it would be cumbersome to find synonyms for these basic terms.

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    Section 10.2

    Acknowledging Sources

    Cite the sources of all ideas and information that are not your own and that are not common knowledge. All ideas and information taken from a source must be acknowledged unless they are considered common knowledge. The crucial term in this rule is, of course, common knowledge.

    There is a simple test to determine whether something should be considered common knowledge and need not be documented: Would this idea or piece of information be familiar to someone like you (a classmate, for example) who has not researched the subject? If the answer is yes, then you do not have to cite the source. Otherwise, you must indicate the source of the material, even if it appears in several texts. Contrary to some commonly held opinions, that an item of information appears in several sources does not make it common knowledge. Some of the most obscure facts in physics or biochemistry, for example, will appear in numerous articles or texts over the years. Still, they are hardly common knowledge.

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    Section 10.3

    Basic Structure and Formats of Citation Styles

    All academic and professional disciplines have specific systems for citing sources. What all these systems have in common is that they provide sufficient information to allow a reader to locate the source of a quotation or reference. Most common citation styles share a common two-part structure: (1) a marker in the text that acknowledges another's words, facts, and ideas and that points to (2) the full source of information.

    Citation styles develop this two-part structure through one of three general formats.

    1. Brief parenthetical information in the text linked to a list of references. The information included in the parentheses provides an unambiguous link to a work in the complete list of sources, usually listed as part of the end matter of the document. In most but not all formats, the primary link in the parenthetical reference is the last name of the first-listed author of the source, and, consequently, most lists of references are arranged alphabetically by author. Depending on the style and the context, parenthetical citations often include such elements as the year of publication, reference to exact page numbers, and a shortened title of the work. The main advantage of this system is that it is extremely flexible: an addition or a deletion of a reference has little effect on other references or the reference list. The principal disadvantages are that a long parenthetical reference may interrupt the text and the rules for parenthetical citations can sometimes be quite complex.

    2. In-text numbers linked to a list of references. Numbers are inserted in the text, usually as superscripts or in parentheses or brackets, that refer to a list of references, in which each of the full sources is numbered and listed once in the order in which it was first cited in the text. Subsequent references to a source in the text use the original reference number. The main advantages of this system are that references are less conspicuous in the text than parenthetical citations and the system is extremely efficient, saving both keystrokes and paper. Its principal disadvantages are that readers may be forced to jump to the reference list to identify an author and that the addition or deletion of a reference will necessitate the renumbering of references throughout the manuscript unless the text is prepared with sophisticated bibliographic software.

    3. In-text numbers linked to footnotes or endnotes with or without a list of references. Although this was once the most common citation system, most scholarly and professional organizations have abandoned footnotes and endnotes because they are redundant and cumbersome. Even the Chicago Manual of Style, the source of the most widely used and accepted note style, now recommends a parenthetical citation system. Similarly, in the 1980s the Modern Language Association, the largest American organization of scholars in English and foreign literatures, changed its recommended form of citation from a note style to its own version of the parenthetical style.

    See also Citing Online Sources and Specific Citation Styles.

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    Section 10.3.1

    Citing Online Sources

    Specific formats for referencing online sources in different styles are just being developed and, in some cases, debated. Indeed, specific formats are often changing as rapidly as the media themselves.

    Online sources lack the permanence and stability of print sources. The Library of Congress, for examples, holds (theoretically forever) the "true and correct" version of any book or magazine copyrighted in the United States. The authenticity of any reference can ultimately be verified by consulting the official and unchangeable copyright copy. On the other hand, a web site can disappear forever the day after it is visited, or, more likely, its content can change radically from one day to the next.

    Because of this inherent mutability of online materials, several general principles for using and citing them are becoming incorporated in most reference styles.

    • If a source exists in print as well as electronic form, access and cite the print source. Only if you are unable to physically access the book or journal should you cite the electronic version.

    • Except for extremely stable online sources, such as large commercial databases, include the exact date you visited or accessed the source in addition to the source's own date of publication or updating.

    • Be sure to give the full Internet address of the source in your citation. To verify its accuracy, return to the location by typing the text of the address into a web browser.

    • If information from an online source (other than a large commercial database) is crucial to your argument, download all information you have used. Even if the source is not essential, if you expect that it may change or disappear, download all information you have used and store it electronically. In some case, you may want to print out the source of your information and include it as an appendix to your document.

    • Copy lowercase and uppercase letters exactly as they are given in the source name and address of any Internet source. Never add any punctuation.

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    Section 10.3.2

    Specific Citation Styles

    Different disciplines and even different publications within a discipline vary in specific stylistic details. The following styles, however, provide commonly used examples of each of these general formats.

    Parenthetical Short Text References Linked to a List of References

    American Psychological Association (APA) style

    Modern Language Association (MLA) style

    In-Text Numbers Linked to a List of References

    Council of Biology Editors (CBE) citation-sequence system

    Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) reference style

    In-Text Numbers Linked to Footnotes or Endnotes with or without a List of References

    Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) Note Format: the standard note system, which has been adapted for students (with some modifications) by Kate Turabian in A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (6th ed., University of Chicago Press, 1996)

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    Section 10.4

    American Psychological Association (APA) Author-Date Style

    APA style is set forth in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 4th ed. (1994). The APA reference style and similar styles are the most commonly used citation formats. The Council of Biology Editors, for example, recommends two citation systems, an in-text number system (see Council of Biology Editors Citation-Sequence System) and a parenthetical name-date system that closely resembles the APA style. Similarly, the Chicago Manual of Style recommends the parenthetical author-date system as "generally most economical in space, in time (for author, editor, and typesetter) and in cost (to publisher and public)--in short, the most practical" (1993, p. 640).

    General Structure

    Guidelines for APA Parenthetical Citation

    Use of Endnotes

    APA Reference List

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    Section 10.4.1

    General Structure

    APA in-text citations link a source mentioned in the text to the entry in the reference list by placing the last name of the author and the year of publication, separated by a comma and a space, in parentheses.

    Citation in Text

    The connection between brain damage and autism is no longer disputed (Bailey, 1993).

    Entry in Reference List

         Bailey, A. (1993). The biology of autism.

    Psychological Medicine, 23, 7-11.

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    Section 10.4.2.1

    Name of Author Included in Text

    If the name of the author is included in the running text, include only the date (and page numbers, if required) in the parenthetical citation.

    Williams (1975) independently reached the same conclusion.

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    Section 10.4.2.2

    Placement of Parenthetical Citations

    If the citation contains the author's name, place the parentheses immediately after the information being cited. If the author's name is included in the text, place the year citation immediately after the name.

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    Section 10.4.2.3

    Page Numbers

    APA style requires page numbers only for direct quotations or references to a specific part of a source, such as a figure, a table, or an equation. Otherwise, page numbers are usually not included in the citation. To indicate page numbers, use the abbreviation p. for a single page or pp. for multiple pages, a space, and the page number or numbers. For a range of numbers, write out the full beginning and ending numbers and separate them with a hyphen.

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    Section 10.4.2.4

    Quotations

    Place the citations for page numbers immediately after the quotation but before any other punctuation marks. If the author is mentioned in the text, place the year citation immediately after the author's name, and place the page numbers in a separate set of parentheses immediately after the quotation.

    The developer of MIT's Media MOO observes that "virtual communities, social clubs, universities, and corporations are all groups of people brought together for a purpose. Achieving that purpose often requires that there be some way to determine who can join that community" (Bruckman, 1996, pp. 51-52).

    Bruckman (1996) observes that "virtual communities, social clubs, universities, and corporations are all groups of people brought together for a purpose. Achieving that purpose often requires that there be some way to determine who can join that community" (pp. 51-52).

    Set off quotations of forty or more words by starting them on a new line and indenting each line five spaces or one standard tab. Do not indent the first line of such a quotation more than the other lines. If a second paragraph begins in the quotation, indent the first line of the second and any subsequent paragraphs an additional five spaces or one standard tab. Place the citation after the quotation's final punctuation.

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    Section 10.4.2.5

    One Work by Two Authors

    Include both last names. In a parenthetical citation, place an ampersand (&) between them.

    A few years later, British cosmologists (Collins & Hawking, 1973) discussed the flatness problem in the context of the anthropic principle.

    If the names of the authors are in the text, use the word and instead of an ampersand.

    A few years later, the British cosmologists Collins and Hawking (1973) discussed the flatness problem in the context of the anthropic principle.

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    Section 10.4.2.6

    One Work by Three, Four or Five Authors

    List all the last names the first time a reference to the work appears, placing a comma and a space after each name. Place an ampersand (&) before the last name in parenthetical material. When including the names in the text, use the word and.

    One method (Nelson, Miller, Lutz, & Fayer, 1982) optically excites and monitors coherent acoustic waves in transparent or light-absorbing liquids and solids.

    Nelson, Miller, Lutz, and Fayer (1982) developed a method of optically exciting and monitoring coherent acoustic waves in transparent or light-absorbing liquids and solids.

    Pulse-length-induced extra resonances arise in transient-grating experiments when the laser pulses are short enough that a steady state cannot be achieved during the excitation process (Farces, Tribuna, Dugal, & Fayer, 1993).

    In subsequent references, give only the first author's name followed by "et al." (Note: Do not underline or italicize this Latin abbreviation for "and others.")

    The method developed by Nelson et al. (1982) allows the selection of any propagation direction in anisotropic materials.

    In anisotropic materials any propagation direction can be selected (Nelson et al., 1982).

    Farces et al. (1993) have demonstrated that extra resonances, such as those caused in frequency-domain nonlinear wave mixing by pure dephasing or laser fluctuations, can also be induced by operation in the time domain.

    Recent research (Farces et al., 1993) demonstrated that extra resonances, such as those caused in frequency-domain nonlinear wave mixing by pure dephasing or laser fluctuations, can also be induced by operation in the time domain.

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    Section 10.4.2.7

    One Work by Six or More Authors

    Give only the first author's name followed by "et al." in the first as well as all subsequent citations.

    Varela et al. (1995) describe a design for object-oriented databases on the World Wide Web.

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    Section 10.4.2.8

    More Than One Work by the Same Author

    List the year for each source and separate the years with a comma and a space.

    Recent research (Mulderig, 1993, 1995) confirms this effect.

    Mulderig (1993, 1995) confirms this effect.

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    Section 10.4.2.9

    More Than One Work by Different Authors in the Same Parenthetical Citation

    List the sources in alphabetical order and separate them with a semicolon.

    Recent research (Catano, 1995; Mulderig, 1993) confirms this effect.

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    Section 10.4.2.10

    Two Works by the Same Author in the Same Year

    Order the entries in the reference list in alphabetical order by title and attach to the year of each entry a corresponding lowercase letter, starting with a. Include the letter suffix in all parenthetical citations.

    (Nier, 1940a)

    (Nier, 1940b)

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    Section 10.4.2.11

    Two Works by Different Authors with the Same Last Name

    Include the authors' initials in all references in the text and in all parenthetical citations.

    G. Williams (1995) and R. H. Williams (1993) independently reported similar results. The results of a recent study (R. H. Williams, 1996) were inconclusive.

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    Section 10.4.2.12

    Organizational Author

    If the author of a source is a corporation, an agency, or a group, list the full name of the organization in your first reference. If your audience is familiar with an abbreviation or acronym for the organization, include it in brackets after the full name and use it in subsequent citations. Otherwise, write out the full name of the organization in each citation.

    The standard performance measures (United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration [FAA], 1989) were used to evaluate the system.

    A "Missed Decision" is defined as a "failure of a runway-status light to illuminate as it should" (FAA, 1989, p. 34).

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    Section 10.4.2.13

    Unknown Author

    Use the first two or three words of the reference-list entry (usually the title) and the year. Use quotation marks for titles of articles, and underline or italicize the title of a book or journal.

    Already several new security holes have been discovered and outlined in detail (New Hacker's Guide, 1996).

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    Section 10.4.2.14

    Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information

    Because your readers do not have access to conversations, interviews, telephone calls, personal letters, and notes, APA style considers these and similar types of information "nonrecoverable data." Cite such information in the text, but do not include it in a list of references. List the initials and the last name of the person being used as a source, the type of communication, and the date of the communication.

    A. P. French (personal communication, April 18, 1994)

    (A. P. French , personal communication, April 18, 1994)

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    Section 10.4.3

    Use of Endnotes

    APA style allows endnotes of two kinds:

    1. Content notes to supplement information in the text. Use superscript arabic numerals both within your text and in your endnotes, numbering them consecutively. Begin your endnotes on a separate double-spaced page with the centered heading Notes.

    2. Identification notes providing biographical information, contact information, or both for each of the document's authors. These notes should be unnumbered and placed on a separate page.

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    Section 10.4.4.1

    APA Content Guidelines

    Include only entries that match in-text references. References should be only to publicly available information. Acknowledge personal communications such as conversations, interviews, telephone calls, and class lectures in the text and in parenthetical citations, but do not include them in the reference list.

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    Section 10.4.4.2

    Page Format

    • Title: References (centered).

    • Ordering of entries: Arrange in alphabetical order by first author's last name; then in chronological order, earliest items first; then in alphabetical order by title. List all single-author entries before multiple-author entries beginning with the same author's name. Do not number entries.

    • Spacing: Double-space both within and between entries.

    • Indentation: Indent the first line five to seven spaces or one default tab (approximately one-half inch). Note: This is the APA's specification for manuscripts submitted for its publications. Before formatting a final draft, consider whether your instructor or other audience prefers a different indentation. Materials actually published by the APA, for example, have a hanging indentation--that is, the first line of each entry is flush left and the subsequent lines are indented.

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    Section 10.4.4.3

    General Structure of Entry

    An APA reference-list entry has four elements: author(s); date (in parentheses); title; and publication information. Separate the elements with a period and a single space. In some cases, such as online materials and articles in an edited book, a fifth element is included.

    1. Author or authors: List all authors, regardless of the number, in the order in which they are listed on the title page of the document. List all authors by last name, a comma and a space, first initial, and if included, middle initial, placing an ampersand (&) before the name of the last author. Separate initials with a period followed by a space. If a work produced by an organization lists no individual author, give the full name of the organization as author. If no author or organization is listed, move the title of the work into the author position.

    2. Date format: The year of the entry always follows one space after the period concluding the author element. It is enclosed in parentheses and is followed by a period and a space. If two or more works by the same author were published in the same year, arrange them alphabetically by title and attach to the year of each work a lowercase letter, starting with a.

      3. In some cases, the month or the month and day are included as part of the date; then the year is followed by a comma, a space and the month (spelled out completely), and, sometimes, the day in arabic numerals.

    3. Title: Give the full name of the work, including subtitles, which are separated from the title by a colon and a single space. Capitalize only the first word of the title, the first word after a colon, and all proper nouns. If the source is not a book or an article, include a description of the source's form (for example, Brochure, Specifications, Map) in brackets immediately following the title but before the period.

    4. Publication information--page numbers: If giving a range, write out the second number in full: 222-227. Use the abbreviations p. and pp. only for articles in books and newspapers and when listing discontinuous pages: pp. 44-49, 102-122.

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    Section 10.4.4.4

    Books

    Title: Underline book titles (including spaces). Include any edition number in parentheses immediately before the period ending the title element.

    Publication information: List the city (written out in full). If the city is not well known or could be confused with another location, add the state (two-letter postal abbreviation) for U.S. locations or the country for foreign publishers. End the location information with a colon and a space followed by the full name of the publisher (omit such terms as Publishers, Company, and Inc.).

    Book by One Author

         Lightman, A. (1991). Ancient light: Our

    changing view of the universe.

    Cambridge, MA:

    Harvard University Press.

    Book by Two or More Authors

         Chomsky, N., & Halle, M. (1968). The

    sound patterns of English.

    New York:

    Harper & Row.

    Edited Book or Anthology

    Place the editor or editors (followed by the abbreviation Ed., or Eds. in parentheses) in the author position.

         Spudich, J. L., & Satir, B. H. (Eds.).

    (1991). Sensory receptors and signal

    transduction.

    New York: Wiley-Liss.

    Book by an Institutional or Organizational Author

         Council of Biology Editors. (1994).

    Scientific style and format: The CBE manual

    for authors, editors, and publishers

    (6th ed.).

    Chicago: Cambridge University Press.

    Government Publication

         United States Department of

    Transportation, Federal Aviation

    Administration. (1989, 21 September). Air

    traffic control. In FAA Handbook (7110.65F

    with Changes 1-5) (pp. 123-98). Washington,

    D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Book with No Listed Author

         The business of roses. (1974). Los

    Angeles: Little and Long.

    Translation

         Heisenberg, W. (1930). The physical

    principles of the quantum theory

    (C. Eckart &

    F. C. Hoyt, Trans.). Chicago: University of

    Chicago Press.

    Technical Report

    List any identifying report, contract, or series number in parentheses immediately after the title. If the report has two numbers, give the one that is the more useful for identification and retrieval.

         Heohan, C. F., Liepins, M. C., Meuse,

    C. A., & Wolfson, M. M. (1992). Summary of

    triple Doppler data, Orlando, 1991

    (Project

    Report ATC-186). Lexington, MA: Massachusetts

    Institute of Technology Lincoln Laboratory.

    Selection in an Edited Book

    This type of entry has five parts, each ending with a period: (1) the author of the selection; (2) the year in parentheses; (3) the title of the selection; (4) identification of the edited volume, beginning with the word In, the name of the editor, and the abbreviation Ed. (or Eds.) followed by the book's title and the page numbers of the selection in parentheses; and (5) the book's publication information.

         Lipson, E. D., & Horwitz, B. D. (1991).

    Photosensory reception and transduction. In

    J. L. Spudich & B. H. Satir (Eds.), Sensory

    receptors and signal transduction (pp. 1-64).

    New York: Wiley-Liss.

    Two or More Selections from an Anthology or Edited Book

    Give all five elements for each entry.

         Chomsky, N. (1967a). Current issues in

    linguistic theory. In J. A. Fodor & J. J.

    Katz (Eds.), The structure of language

    (pp. 50-118). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

    Prentice-Hall.

         Chomsky, N. (1967b). Degrees of

    grammaticalness. In J. A. Fodor & J. J. Katz

    (Eds.), The structure of language (pp. 384-389).

    Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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    Section 10.4.4.5

    Journal Articles

    Write out the full name of the periodical. Capitalize all words except prepositions and articles that do not begin the title or follow a colon. Underline both the periodical title and the volume number.

    Article in a Journal Paginated by Annual Volume

    Give the title followed by a comma, a space, the volume number (all underlined), another comma, a space, and the page numbers of the article without the abbreviations p. or pp.

         Pasternack, R. F., & Collins, P. J.

    (1995). Resonance light scattering: A new

    technique for studying chromophore aggregation.

    Science, 269, 935-939.

         Nelson, K. A., Miller, R. J. Dwayne,

    Lutz, D. R., & Fayer, M. D. (1982). Optical

    generation of tunable ultrasonic waves.

    Journal of Applied Physics, 53, 1144-1149.

    Article in a Journal Paginated by Issue

    If the journal is a monthly or bimonthly periodical, list the month of publication after the year. A comma, a space, and the volume number (all italicized or underlined) follow the title. The issue number follows the volume number in parentheses without a space. After another comma, list the page numbers of the article without the abbreviations p. or pp.

         Denning, D. E. (1995, July). Resolving

    the encryption dilemma: The case for the

    clipper chip. Technology Review, 98(5), 48-55.

    Article in a Daily, Weekly, or Biweekly Magazine or Newspaper

    Include the year, month, and day. List the page numbers with the abbreviations p. or pp.

         Metcalfe, B. (1996, September 30). The

    numbers show how slowly the Internet runs

    today. Infoworld, p. 34.

    Paper Published in Conference Proceedings

    Treat a presentation in conference proceedings like an article in an edited book. If the title of the book does not indicate the name of the conference, place, in brackets, after the title, "Proceedings of" followed by the name of the conference, capitalized.

         Paez-Borrallo, J. M., Perez-Alavarez,

    I. A., & Bello, S. Z. (1994). Adaptive

    filtering in data communications with self

    improved error reference. In IEEE International

    Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal

    Processing

    (pp. 65-68). Adelaide, Australia:

    Institute of Electrical and Electronic

    Engineers.

         Halle, M. (1987). A biblical pattern

    poem. In N. Fabb, D. Attridge, A. Durant, &

    C. MacCabe (Eds.), The linguistics of writing:

    Arguments between language and literature

    [Proceedings of the conference The Linguistics

    of Writing] (pp. 67-75). New York: Methuen.

    Unpublished Paper Presented at a Meeting

    Give the complete date of the presentation and underline or italicize the title of the paper, followed by "Paper presented at" and the name of the conference and its location.

         Lai, M., Chen, B., & Yuan, S. (1995, 12

    December). Toward a new educational

    environment.

    Paper presented at the Fourth

    International World Wide Web Conference,

    Boston.

    Unpublished Dissertation

    Underline the title of the dissertation. Then add "Unpublished doctoral dissertation" and the name and location of the university.

         Glazer, F. G. (1987). Hierarchical

    motion detection.

    Unpublished doctoral

    dissertation, University of Massachusetts at

    Amherst.

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    Section 10.4.4.6

    Electronic sources

    The format for documenting electronic sources of information, like the sources themselves, is still being developed. The following forms are taken from the Publication Manual of the APA, 4th ed. (1994), and recent standards proposed by T. Land (1996) to extend APA style for referencing online documents. In general, all electronic sources in APA style have five elements: author, date, title, document type, and publication information.

    CD-ROMS and Other Portable Databases

    Provide the author, date, and title information as you would for a print source. Identify the medium (such as CD-ROM), electronic tape, cartridge tape) in brackets after the title. At the end of the entry, include the location and name of the product.

    Journal Abstract on CD-ROM

         Steinhausen, H. D., & Vollrath, M. (1993).

    The self-image of adolescent patterns with

    eating disorders [CD-ROM]. International

    Journal of Eating Disorders, 13

    (2), 221-227.

    Abstract from: Silverplatter File: PsycLIT

    Item 80-33985.

    Information Published Only on CD-ROM

         Solution Software. (1996). Material Safety

    Datasheets

    [CD-ROM]. Enterprise, FL:

    Author.

    Computer Software

    Corel Corporation, Ltd. (1996). Quattro Pro (Ver. 6.02 for Windows)

    [Computer Software]. (1996). Dublin, Ireland:

    Author.

    Online Sources

    For a source that is revised regularly, add, if available, the source's day and month of publication or the day and month it was last modified as part of the date entry, and include in parentheses at the end of the citation the date you visited the source in the form (visited year, month, day). The publication information for any standard World Wide Web source is a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). The proposed, but not yet accepted, APA style (Land, 1996) begins the publication element of all World Wide Web sites with the capital letters "URL" followed by a space and the full URL path underlined. Do not end a URL with a period or any other punctuation. Begin a URL on a new line rather than breaking it between two lines.

    Journal Published Only Online

         Harnack, A., & Kleppinger, G. (1996).

    Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting

    electronic sources on the Internet [On-line

    serial]. Kairos, 1(2). URL

    http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2

    Document Available through the World Wide Web

         Land, T. (1996, March 31). Web extension

    to American Psychological Association style

    (WEAPAS)

    [WWW Document] (Rev. 1.2.4). URL

    http://www.nyu.edu/pages/psychology/WEAPAS/

    (visited 1996, September 21).

    Document Retrieved from a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Archive

         Curtis, P. (1992). Mudding: Social phenomena

    in text-based virtual realities [FTP archive]. Available FTP:

    Hostname: parcftp.xerox.com.pub/MOO/papers/DIAC92

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    Section 10.5

    Modern Language Association (MLA) Author-Page Style

    MLA style is widely used by academics and publishers, especially in fields connected with the study of literature or foreign languages.

    General Structure

    Guidelines for MLA Parenthetical Notation

    Use of Endnotes or Footnotes

    MLA List of Works Cited

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    Section 10.5.1

    General Structure

    The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 4th ed. (1995), recommends a system of in-text citations that clearly point to entries included in a reference list, called Works Cited at the end of the document. The APA and MLA styles differ significantly in several areas, particularly in the information given in the in-text parenthetical citation, the guidelines for placement of such citations, and numerous specific formatting and stylistic conventions for both the citations and the reference lists.

    For example, MLA style emphasizes the exact location of information. Consequently, the specific page numbers of a reference are always listed in the citation unless the reference is clearly to the entire source as a whole. On the other hand, MLA in-text citations do not include the year of publication.

    Citation in Text

    The connection between brain damage and autism is no longer disputed (Bailey 8).

    Entry in List of Works Cited

    Bailey, Arthur. "The Biology of Autism."

         Psychological Medicine 23 (1993): 7-11.

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    Section 10.5.2.1

    Placement of Parenthetical Citation

    Because MLA style emphasizes readability, it recommends, in general, placing parenthetical citations at the end of the sentence rather than immediately after the information being cited. If the author's name is included in the text, the page number should still be placed at the end of the sentence.

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    Section 10.5.2.2

    Name of Author Included in Text

    MLA style encourages placing the name of the author in the running text, thus decreasing the number and size of parenthetical citations and making the prose more readable. If the name of the author is included in the text, include in the citation only the page number (and, if your Works Cited list includes two works by the same author, a short title).

    Bailey concludes that the connection between brain damage and autism is no longer disputed (8).

    Williams independently reached the same conclusion (111-19).

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    Section 10.5.2.3

    Page Numbers

    Indicate page numbers without p. or pp. For a range of numbers, give the full first number and the final two digits of the last number with a hyphen in between. Give more than two digits in cases where they are needed to make the range immediately apparent to the reader (66-98, but 66-103 instead of 66-03).

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    Section 10.5.2.4

    Quotations

    Place the citation immediately after the quotation but before any punctuation ending the clause or sentence. However, if the quotation ends with an exclamation point or a question mark, place that punctuation mark before the closing quotation mark, and then write the parenthetical citation followed by the punctuation that ends the clause or sentence.

    The developer of MIT's Media MOO observes "Virtual communities, social clubs, universities, and corporations are all groups of people brought together for a purpose. Achieving that purpose often requires that there be some way to determine who can join that community" (Bruckman 51-52).

    Bruckman observes, "Virtual communities, social clubs, universities, and corporations are all groups of people brought together for a purpose. Achieving that purpose often requires that there be some way to determine who can join that community" (51-52).

    Noting that gravitational and kinetic energies are no longer equal, Lightman asks, "Why are [they] becoming unbalanced at this particular moment in cosmic time, just when Homo sapiens happened to arrive?" (61).

    Set off quotations of more than four lines by starting them on a new line and indenting each line ten spaces or one inch. If the quotation is only one paragraph or part of one, do not indent the first line further. If the quotation includes the beginning of a second paragraph, indent the first line of each complete paragraph an additional three spaces or one-fourth inch. Place the citation after the final punctuation.

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    Section 10.5.2.5

    One Work by Two or Three Authors

    Include all last names in both parenthetical citations and references in the text. Use the word and rather than an ampersand for both in-text and parenthetical citations. For three authors, place a comma after the first and second authors.

    A few years later, British cosmologists discussed the flatness problem in the context of the anthropic principle (Collins and Hawking 317).

    Radically new approaches to educational uses of network technology have been recently developed in China (Lai, Chen, and Yuan 2).

    MLA style prefers, however, including the authors' names in the text.

    A few years later, the British cosmologists Collins and Hawking discussed the flatness problem in the context of the anthropic principle (317).

    Lai, Chen, and Yuan have described China's development of radically new approaches to educational uses of network technology (2).

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    Section 10.5.2.6

    One Work by Four or More Authors

    List only the first author's name followed by "et al." (Note: Do not underline or italicize this Latin abbreviation for "and others.")

    The method developed by Nelson et al. allows the selection of any propagation direction in anisotropic materials (1146-47).

    In anisotropic materials any propagation direction can be selected (Nelson et al. 1146-47).

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    Section 10.5.2.7

    More Than One Work by the Same Author

    If the list of works cited includes more than one work by the same author, identify the specific source by both the author's name and a short, one-to-three word version of the title.

    New educational software is being developed to allow elementary school children from a variety of geographic locations and cultural background to collaborate in building a virtual world (Bruckman, MOOSE Crossing 3-4).

    Bruckman observes that "virtual communities, social clubs, universities, and corporations are all groups of people brought together for a purpose. Achieving that purpose often requires that there be some way to determine who can join that community" ("Finding" 51-52).

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    Section 10.5.2.8

    More Than One Work by Different Authors in the Same Citation

    Separate the sources with a semicolon followed by one space.

    Recent research confirms this effect (Catano 412-13; Mulderig 1198- 1234).

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    Section 10.5.2.9

    Two Works by Different Authors with the Same Last Name

    Include the authors' first names in all references in the text and in all parenthetical citations.

    Gary Williams (382-84) and Rosalind H. Williams (94-98) independently reported similar results.

    The results of a recent study (Rosalind H. Williams 94-98) were inconclusive.

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    Section 10.5.2.10

    Organizational Author

    If the author of a source is a corporation, an agency, or a group, give the full name of the organization as it appears in the list of works cited. MLA style recommends including long names of agencies in the text to avoid interrupting the reader.

    The standard performance measures of the United States Department of Transportation's Federal Aviation Administration (123-97) were used in evaluating the system.

    rather than

    The standard performance measures (United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration 123-97) were used in evaluating the system.

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    Section 10.5.2.11

    Unknown Author

    Use the first two or three words of the reference-list entry (usually the title). Use quotation marks for titles of articles and underline or italicize the title of a book or journal.

    Already several new security holes have been discovered and outlined in detail (New Hacker's Guide 18).

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    Section 10.5.2.12

    Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information

    Acknowledge unpublished interviews, telephone calls, personal letters, notes, and other such information in both parenthetical citations and the list of works cited.

    A. P. French noted that the clarity of Rutherford's prose style is not often imitated in the writing of most contemporary physicists (personal conversation, 18 April 1994).

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    Section 10.5.3

    Use of Endnotes or Footnotes

    MLA style allows two types of endnotes or footnotes.

    1. Content notes providing supplementary information, explanations, and comments that would interrupt the readability of the text. In general, avoid long notes. Use notes only to include material that you cannot fit into the text but that is essential for a clear and complete understanding of what you have written.

    2. Bibliographic notes giving additional references and evaluative comments on sources, contact information, or both for each of the document's authors.

    Number your notes consecutively, using superscript arabic numerals both in the text and in your endnotes.

    Endnotes

    Footnotes

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    Section 10.5.3.1

    Endnotes

    Consecutively number all the notes in your paper. Place endnotes on a separate double-spaced page before the list of works cited, with the centered heading Notes. Indent the first line of each note five spaces or one standard tab (one-half inch), and begin the note with the superscript number without punctuation.

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    Section 10.5.3.2

    Footnotes

    Place each footnote at the bottom of the page on which the reference occurs, and, if possible, avoid continuing the note onto the following page. Begin the note four lines--two double-spaced lines--below the last line of text. Indent the first line of each note five spaces or one standard tab (one-half inch), and begin the note with the superscript number without punctuation. Footnotes are single-spaced with a double space between them.

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    Section 10.5.4.1

    Content Guidelines

    Include all sources that have contributed ideas and information to your document. Be sure that the entries correspond to and match the in-text references. A list of works cited includes only sources mentioned in the text, notes, or appendixes. If you need to mention works that you consulted but that did not directly contribute information or ideas to your document, change the title to Works Consulted. Include references to all sources, whether or not they are publicly available.

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    Section 10.5.4.2

    Page Format

    • Title: Works Cited (centered)

    • Ordering of entries: Arrange in alphabetical order by first author's last name or, for works without authors, the first significant word in the title. List a single-author entry before a multiple-author entry beginning with the same author name. Do not number entries.

    • Spacing: Double-space both within and between entries.

    • Indentation: Begin the first line at the left margin, and indent all subsequent lines five spaces or half an inch.

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    Section 10.5.4.3

    General Structure of Entry

    An MLA Works Cited entry has three basic elements: author(s); title; and publication information. Separate the elements with a period and a single space. In some cases, such as online materials and articles in an edited book, other elements are included.

    1. Author or authors: List the authors or, in some cases, the editors of the work in the order and form in which they are listed on the title page of the document. Include all first names, middle names, and initials. List the first author by last name followed by a comma, a space, and the rest of the name. For works with two authors, follow the first author's name with a comma and a space, and then list the second author's name in straightforward order followed by a period. For works with three authors, follow the first author's name with a comma and a space, then list the second and third authors' names. For works with more than three authors (or editors), list only the inverted name of the first author followed by a comma and "et al." the Latin phrase meaning "and others." If a work produced by an organization lists no individual author, give the full name of the organization as author. If no author or organization is listed, move the title of the work into the author position. If your list of works cited includes two or more works by the same person, list the name in full in the first entry. In subsequent entries, type three hyphens and a period in place of the name. The three hyphens indicate exactly the same name or names as the preceding entry and can be used even if the role (author or editor) is different.

    2. Title: Give the full name of work including subtitles, which are separated from the title by a colon and a single space. Capitalize the first and last words of a title and subtitle and all other words except articles, coordinating conjunctions, prepositions and the to in infinitives.

    3. Publication information

      Date format: MLA style includes the year and, in some cases, the month and day as part of the publication information. Dates are given in arabic numerals in the the format day, month, and year without any commas. Abbreviate all months except May, June, and July with the month's first three letters plus a period (for example, 12 Sep. 1991).

      Page numbers: Indicate page numbers without the abbreviation p. or pp. For a range of numbers, write out the full first number and the final two digits of the last number, with a hyphen in between. Give more than two digits in cases where they are needed to make the range immediately apparent to the reader (66-98, but 66-103 instead of 66-03).

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    Section 10.5.4.4

    Books

    Title: Italicize or underline book titles (including spaces). If the book is an edited work and the author is listed, include the edition number and the editor or editors as a separate element between the title and the publication information. Treat a translation the same way. Separate the elements with periods.

    Publication information: List the city (written out in full). If the city is not well known or could be confused with another location, add the state (two-letter postal abbreviation) for U.S. locations or the country for foreign publishers. End the location information with a colon and a space followed by a short version of the publisher's name (Harcourt for Harcourt Brace & Co., and Beacon for Beacon Press, Inc.). Use the abbreviation UP for University Press. After the publisher's name type a comma, and then give the year of publication followed by a period.

    Book by one Author

    Lightman, Alan. Ancient Light: Our Changing

         View of the Universe. Cambridge, MA:

         Harvard UP, 1991.

    Book by Two Authors

    Chomsky, Noam, and Morris Halle. The Sound

         Patterns of English. New York: Harper,

         1968.

    Edited Book or Anthology

    Place the editor or editors (followed by a comma, a space, and ed. or eds.) in the author position.

    Spudich, John L., and Bruce H. Satir, eds.

         Sensory Receptors and Signal Transduction.

         New York: Wiley-Liss, 1991.

    Selection in an Edited Book

    This type of entry has six parts, each ending with a period: (1) the author of the selection; (2) the title of the selection; (3) the title of the edited book; (4) the full name of the editor; (5) publication information; and (6) the page numbers of the selection.

    Lipson, Edward D., and Bruce D. Horwitz.

         "Photosensory Reception and Transduction."

         Sensory Receptors and Signal Transduction.

         Ed. John L. Spudich and Bruce H. Satir.

         New York: Wiley-Liss, 1991. 1-64.

    Two or More Works by the Same Author

    Chomsky, Noam. "Current Issues in Linguistic

         Theory." The Structure of Language. Ed.

         Jerry A. Fodor and Jerrold J. Katz.

         Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice, 1967.

         50-118.

    ---. "Degrees of Grammaticalness." The

         Structure of Language. Ed. Jerry A. Fodor

         and Jerrold J. Katz. Englewood Cliffs,

         NJ: Prentice, 1967. 384-89.

    Chomsky, Noam, and Morris Halle. The Sound

         Patterns of English. New York: Harper,

         1968.

    Book by an Institutional or Organizational Author

    Council of Biology Editors. Scientific Style

         and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors,

         Editors, and Publishers. 6th. ed.

         Chicago: Cambridge UP, 1994.

    Government Publications

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

         NASA Pocket Statistics. Washington, DC:

         Office of Headquarters Operations, 1991.

    Book with No Listed Author

    Waterstone's Guide to Books. London:

         Waterstone, 1981.

    Translation

    Heisenberg, Werner. The Physical Principles

         of the Quantum Theory. Trans. Carl Eckart

         and Frank C. Hoyt. Chicago: U of Chicago

         P, 1930.

    Technical Report

    MLA style treats technical reports as books.

    Heohan, Chris F., et. al. Summary of Triple

         Doppler Data, Orlando 1991. Lexington MA:

         MIT Lincoln Laboratory, 1992.

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    Section 10.5.4.5

    Journal Articles

    Entries for articles from periodicals, like books, have three main divisions, each ending with a period. The first part is the name of the author or authors. The second part is the title of the article, enclosed in quotation marks. The third part of the entry is the publication information, which begins with the name of the periodical. Underline or italicize the journal title, and capitalize all words except prepositions and articles that do not begin the title or follow a colon. Additional publication information , such as the volume number and the date of publication, follows the title and concludes with a colon, a space, the page numbers of the article, and a period. If an article is continued from its first page to a nonconsecutive page, give only the first page and (without a space) a + sign.

    Article in a Journal Paginated by Annual Volume

    Give the journal title (italicized or underlined) followed by a space, the volume number, another space, the year of publication (in parentheses), a colon, a space, and the page numbers of the article without the abbreviation p. or pp.

    Nelson, Keith A., et al. "Optical Generation

         of Tunable Ultrasonic Waves." Journal of

         Applied Physics 53 (1982): 1144-49.

    Pasternack, Robert F., and Peter J. Collins.

         "Resonance Light Scattering: A New

         Technique for Studying Chromophore

         Aggregation." Science 269 (1995): 935-9.

    Article in a Journal Paginated by Issue

    Add a period and the issue number (also in arabic numerals) to the volume number.

    Allemang, John. "Social Studies in Gibberish."

         Quarterly Review of Doublespeak 20.1

         (1993): 9-10.

    Article in a Monthly or Bimonthly Periodical

    If the journal is a monthly or bimonthly periodical, list the month and year of publication instead of the volume number.

    Fallows, James. "Networking Technology."

         Atlantic Monthly July 1994: 34-36.

    Article in a Daily, Weekly, or Biweekly Magazine or Newspaper

    Include the year, month, and day.

    Metcalfe, Bob. "The Numbers Show How Slowly

         the Internet Runs Today." Infoworld 30

         Sep. 1996: 34.

    Paper Published in Conference Proceedings

    Treat a presentation in conference proceedings like an article in an edited book.

    Jaeggli, Osvaldo. "Subject Extraction and the

         Null Subject Parameter." Proceedings of

         NELS 14. Ed. Charles Jones and Pamela

         Sells. Amherst, MA: Graduate Linguistic

         Student Assn., Univ. of Massachusetts,

         1984. 132-53.

    Paez-Borrallo, Jose M., Isabel A. Perez-

         Alavarez, and Sergio Z. Bello. "Adaptive

         Filtering in Data Communications with

         Self Improved Error Reference."

         Conference. IEEE International Conference

         on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing.

         Adelaide, Australia: IEEE, 1994. 65-68.

    Halle, Morris. "A Biblical Pattern Poem." The

         Linguistics of Writing: Arguments

         between Language and Literature. Ed.

         Nigel Fabb et al. New York: Methuen,

         1987. 67-75.

    Unpublished Paper Presented at a Meeting

    Give the author's name, the title of the paper, the meeting, and the presentation. Underline or italicize the title of the paper. Then write "Paper presented at" and the name of conference and its location, followed by the date.

    Lai, Ming-Chih, Bih-Horng Chen, and Shyan-

         Ming Yuan. Toward a New Educational

         Environment. Section on Educational

         Applications of the World Wide Web. Paper

         presented at the Fourth International

         World Wide Web Conference. Boston,

         12 Dec. 1995.

    Unpublished Dissertation

    Give the title of the dissertation in quotation marks. Then add Diss. and the name of the university, followed by the year.

    Glazer, Frederick G. "Hierarchical Motion

         Detection." Diss. Univ. of Massachusetts,

         1987.

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    Section 10.5.4.6

    Electronic Sources

    The format for documenting electronic sources of information is still being developed. The following forms are taken from the MLA Handbook, 4th ed. (1995), and recent online papers and articles (Harnack and Kleppinger, 1996; Walker, 1996a; 1996b).

    CD-ROMs and Other Portable Databases

    Provide the author, date, and title information as you would for a print source. Identify the medium (such as CD-ROM, electronic tape, cartridge tape) after the title of the database. At the end of the entry, include the location and name of the product and the publication date.

    CD-ROM Database: Abstract with a Print Version

    Steinhausen, Harold C., and Mary Vollrath.

         "The Self-Image of Adolescent Patterns

         with Eating Disorders." International

         Journal of Eating Disorders 13 (1993):

         item 80-33985, PsycLIT Abstracts. CD-ROM.

         Silverplatter. 1993.

    Information Published Only on CD-ROM

    Material Safety Datasheets. CD-ROM. Enterprise,

         FL: Solution Software. 1996.

    Computer Software

    Quattro Pro. Ver. 6.02 for Windows. Computer

         Program. Dublin, Ireland: Corel, 1996.

    Online Sources

    One proposed, but not yet accepted, MLA style guideline (Harnack and Kleppinger, 1996) suggests the following format: the author's name; the full title of the document in quotation marks, if appropriate; the title of the journal or larger work if available underlined or in italics; the date of publication or last revision; the full Uniform Resource Locator (URL) address; and the date accessed in parentheses. Enclose the full URL path in angle brackets (< >) with no underlining or punctuation. (Do not end a URL with any punctuation mark, and begin it on a new line rather than breaking it between two lines.)

    Journal Published Only Online

    Harnack, Andrew, and Gene Kleppinger. "Beyond

         the MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic

         Sources on the Internet." Kairos 1.2

         (1996): <http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2/>

         (21 Sep. 1996).

    Document Available through the World Wide Web

    Walker, Janice R. "MLA-Style Citations of

         Electronic Sources." Ver. 1.0, Rev. Apr.

         1995.

         <http://www.cas.usf.edu/english/walker/mla.html>

         (21 Sep. 1996).

    Document Retrieved from a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Archive

    Use the same form as for a World Wide Web document except precede the full path name of the file with the lowercase abbreviation ftp and do not enclose the path name in angle brackets.

    Curtis, Pavel. "Mudding: Social Phenomena in

         Text-Based Virtual Realities." 1992.

         ftp parcftp.xerox.com/pub/MOO/papers/DIAC92

         (4 Aug. 1996).

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    Section 10.6

    Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)--Note Citations

    The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th ed. (1993), presents three styles of documentation. Two of the styles are author-date systems--one using formatting conventions common in the humanities, the other incorporating practices common in scientific and technical writing. The third and more traditional system, presented here, uses numbered endnotes or footnotes and, in the case of a long manuscript, a bibliography.

    The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) was originally written as a guide to authors and editors of professional books. Kate Turabian adapted and modified CMS style for students in A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations 6th ed. (1996). In some places, the two books present different recommendations. With a few exceptions, which will be noted, the format presented here is standard CMS style.

    General Structure

    Guidelines for CMS Note Citation

    Use of Endnotes or Footnotes

    CMS Note List

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    Section 10.6.1

    General Structure

    Each reference in the text is followed by a consecutive raised (superscript) number, which refers to a note placed on a separate sheet at the end of the text. (Turabian and some specific styles, however, prefer footnotes, which are placed at the bottom of each page.) For the note numbers in the text, use superscript numbers, which are easily generated by almost all common word processing programs.

    In contrast to all the other documentation systems mentioned, CMS style requires a separate endnote for each citation of a source. In addition, CMS style recommends that long documents also include an alphabetized bibliography, which contains the same information as the notes but in a different format.

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    Section 10.6.2

    Guidelines for CMS Note Citation

    Citation in Text

    Physicists have long sought a grand unified theory, since scientists have always preferred theories with the fewest of elements.1

    Note

         1. Alan Lightman, Ancient Light: Our

    Changing View of the Universe

    (Cambridge:

    Harvard University Press, 1991), 106.

    Listing in Bibliography

    Lightman, Alan. Ancient Light: Our Changing

         View of the Universe. Cambridge: Harvard

         University Press, 1991.

    If the next reference is to the same source, substitute the abbreviation Ibid. (from the Latin ibidem, meaning "in the same place") for the work. Unless the reference is to the same page or pages listed in the preceding reference, indicate the page number after a comma and a space.

         2. Ibid., 152

    Subsequent nonconsecutive notes to the same reference are then given in a brief format.

         6. Lightman, 127

    See

    Placement of Superscript Notes

    Page Numbers

    Quotations

    Citing More Than One Work by the Same Author

    More Than One Work by Different Authors in the Same Note

    Two Works by Different Authors with the Same Last Name

    Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information

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    Section 10.6.2.1

    Placement of Superscript Note Numbers

    Place a note number at the end of a sentence or in, exceptional cases, at the end of a clause, after any punctuation mark except a dash (which should be preceded by the note number).

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    Section 10.6.2.2

    Page Numbers

    CMS style, like MLA style, requires the exact page number of the information being cited in all notes except those that explicitly refer to a work as a whole.

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    Section 10.6.2.3

    Quotations

    Place the note number immediately after the quotation. Quotations of eight or more lines should be set off as block quotations, single-spaced and separated from the general text by a blank line above and below. Indent block quotations four spaces from the left margin.

    The developer of MIT's Media MOO observes that "virtual communities, social clubs, universities, and corporations are all groups of people brought together for a purpose. Achieving that purpose often requires that there be some way to determine who can join that community."9

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    Section 10.6.2.4

    More Than One Work by the Same Author

    If you are citing two or more works by the same author, include a short form of the title as part of the brief format.

         3. Noam Chomsky, "Current Issues in

    Linguistic Theory," in The Structure of

    Language

    , ed. Jerry A. Fodor and Jerrold J.

    Katz (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,

    1967), 56-58.

         4. Noam Chomsky, "Degrees of

    Grammaticalness," in The Structure of Language, ed.

    Jerry A. Fodor and Jerrold J. Katz (Englewood

    Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967), 386.

         7. Chomsky, "Current Issues," 98.

         8. Chomsky, "Degrees," 384-86.

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    Section 10.6.2.5

    More Than One Work by Different Authors in the Same Note

    Include several sources documenting a single fact in one note. Separate items with semicolons.

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    Section 10.6.2.6

    Two Works by Different Authors with the Same Last Name

    Include the author's first name as part of each brief reference.

         12. Chaim Perelman, 12-19.

         13. Leslie Perelman, 3.



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    Section 10.6.2.7

    Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information

    Because your readers do not have access to conversations, interviews, telephone calls, personal letters, and notes, CMS style recommends that such information be mentioned in the text of your document but not included in the notes or the bibliography.

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    Section 10.6.3

    Use of Endnotes or Footnotes

    CMS style discourages including content notes along with bibliographic notes.

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    Section 10.6.4.1

    Content Guidelines

    Include only entries that match in-text notes. References should be only to publicly available information. Acknowledge personal communications such as conversations, interviews, telephone calls, and class lectures in the text, but do not include them in the reference list or the bibliography. Although a bibliography is not always used, the examples in Books and Journal Articles show the bibliographic form after the note form.

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    Section 10.6.4.2

    Page Format

    • Title: Notes (centered)

    • Ordering of entries: Arrange entries numerically. Place the numbers preceding the note on the same line in the same type font, followed by a period and two spaces.

    • Spacing: Double-space both within and between entries. (Turabian recommends single-spacing both footnotes and endnotes, with a blank line between notes.)

    • Indentation: Indent first line five to seven spaces or one default tab (approximately one-half inch).

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    Section 10.6.4.3

    General Structure of Entry

    A CMS entry has four elements: author(s); title; publication information including the date; and the page number or numbers. Separate the author's name from the title with a comma, and place the publication information in parentheses. If a page number is included, follow the parentheses with a comma and the page number or numbers.

    1. Author or authors: List up to three authors, all in straightforward (rather than last-name-first) order.

    2. Title: Give the full name of the work, including the subtitles, if any, which is separated from the title by a colon and a single space. Capitalize all significant words, the first word of the title, and the last word after a colon. If the source is not a book or an article, include a description of the source's form.

    3. Publication information--date format: Always give the year. In some cases, such as some types of periodicals and online sources, the month or the month and day are included as part of the date. Dates are in arabic numerals the format day, month (not abbreviated), and year, or month and year. Dates are not punctuated.

    4. Page numbers: For a range of numbers, write out the full first number followed by a hyphen and the final one or two digits of the last number (66-98, but 105-9). Give all the digits of the second number in cases where they are needed to make the range immediately apparent to the reader (66-98, but 66-103 instead of 66-03). Use the abbreviations p. and pp. for page numbers of sources from journals without volume numbers.

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    Section 10.6.4.4

    Books

    Title: Italicize or underline book titles (including spaces). Include (not italicized or underlined) a second or subsequent edition number after the title.

    Publication information: Enclose the location information in parentheses. Begin with the city (written out in full). If the city is not well known or could be confused with anotheration, add the state (full, not postal abbreviation) for U.S. locations or the country for foreign publishers. End the location information with a colon. Type a space and give the full name of the publisher followed by a comma, a space, the year, and the closing parenthesis. In each of the following examples, the note form is followed by the bibliography form.

    Although a bibliography is not always used, the examples that follow show the bibliographic form after the note form.

    Book by One Author

         1. Alan Lightman, Ancient Light: Our

    Changing View of the Universe

    (Cambridge, MA:

    Harvard University Press, 1991), 106.


    Lightman, Alan. Ancient Light: our Changing

         View of the Universe. Cambridge, MA:

         Harvard University Press, 1991.

    Book by Two or More Authors

         1. Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle, The

    Sound Patterns of English

    (New York: Harper &

    Row, 1968), 77-81.


    Chomsky, Noam, and Morris Halle. The Sound

         Patterns of English. New York: Harper &

         Row, 1968.

    Edited Book or Anthology

    Place the editor or editors (followed by ed. or eds.) in the author position.

         1. John L. Spudich and Bruce H. Satir,

    eds., Sensory Receptors and Signal

    Transduction

    (New York: Wiley-Liss, 1991).


    Spudich, John L., and Bruce H. Satir, eds.

         Sensory Receptors and Signal Transduction.

         New York: Wiley-Liss, 1991.

    Book by an Institutional or Organization Author

         1. Council of Biology Editors, Scientific

    Style and Format: the CBE Manual for Authors,

    Editors and Publishers,

    6th ed. (Chicago:

    Cambridge University Press, 1994), 738.


    Council of Biology Editors, Scientific Style

         and Format: the CBE Manual for Authors,

         Editors, and Publishers. 6th ed., Chicago:

         Cambridge University Press, 1994.

    Government Publication

         1. National Aeronautics and Space

    Administration, NASA Pocket Statistics

    (Washington, D.C.: Office of Headquarters

    Operations, 1991).


    National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

         NASA Pocket Statistics. Washington, D.C.:

         Office of Headquarters Operations, 1991.

    Book with No Listed Author

         1. Waterstone's Guide to Books (London:

    Waterstone, 1981).


    Waterstone's Guide to Books. London:

         Waterstone, 1981.

    Translation

         1. Werner Heisenberg, The Physical

    Principles of the Quantum Theory,

    trans. Carl

    Eckart and Frank C. Hoyt (Chicago: University

    of Chicago Press, 1930).


    Heisenberg, Werner. The Physical Principles

         of the Quantum Theory. Translated by Carl

         Eckart and Frank C. Hoyt. Chicago:

         University of Chicago Press, 1930.

    Technical Report

    CMS style treats technical reports as books. List any identifying report, contract, or series number immediately after the title. If the report has two numbers, give the one that is the more useful for identification and retrieval.

         1. Chris F. Heohan, Margita C. Liepins,

    Cynthia A. Meuse, and Marilyn M. Wolfson,

    Summary of Triple Doppler Data, Orlando, 1991,

    Project Report ATC-186 (Lexington, Mass.: MIT

    Lincoln Laboratory, 1992).


    Heohan, Chris F., Margita C. Liepins, Cynthia

         A. Meuse, and Marylin M. Wolfson. Summary

         of Triple Doppler Data, Orlando, 1991.

         Project Report. ATC-186. Lexington, Mass.:

         MIT Lincoln Laboratory, 1992.

    Selection in an Edited Book

    This type of entry has five parts: (1) the author of the selection; (2) the title of the selection; (3) the word in introducing the title of the edited volume, which is followed by ed. (here standing for "edited by") and the name of the editor; (4) the publication information; and (5) the page numbers of the selection.

         1. Edward D. Lipson and Bruce D. Horwitz,

    "Photosensory Reception and Transduction," in

    Sensory Receptors and Signal Transduction, ed.

    John L. Spudich and Bruce H. Satir (New York:

    Wiley-Liss, 1991), 1-64.


    Lipson, Edward D., and Bruce D. Horwitz.

         "Photosensory Reception and transduction."

         In Sensory Receptors and Signal

         Transduction, edited by John L. Spudich

         and Bruce H. Satir, 1-64. New York:

         Wiley-Liss, 1991.

    Two or More Works by the Same Author

    The full notes are in standard form, but the short forms include a brief title. Format the author's name in the bibliographic entries in the same style as MLA, and list the name (or names if there are multiple authors) in the first entry. In subsequent entries, type three hyphens and a period in place of the name(s).

         1. Noam Chomsky, "Current Issues in

    Linguistic Theory," in The Structure of

    Language, ed. Jerry A. Fodor and Jerrold J.

    Katz (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,

    1967), 50-118.

         2. Noam Chomsky, "Degrees of

    Grammaticalness," in The Structure of Language,

    ed. Jerry A. Fodor and Jerrold J. Katz

    (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967),

    384-89.


    Chomsky, Noam. "Current Issues in Linguistic

         Theory." In The Structure of Language,

         edited by Jerry A. Fodor and Jerrold J.

         Katz, 50-118. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:

         Prentice-Hall, 1967.

    ---. "Degrees of Grammaticalness." In The

         Structure of Language, edited by Jerry A.

         Fodor and Jerrold J. Katz, 384-89.

         Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,

         1967.

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    Section 10.6.4.5

    Journal Articles

    The author's name is followed by the article title. Enclose the article title in quotation marks and capitalize the first and last words of the title and subtitle and all other words except prepositions, articles, coordinating conjunctions, and the to in infinitives. Write out the full name of the periodical. Underline or italicize the periodical title but not the volume number. Put the date in parentheses followed by a colon and page numbers.

    Although a bibliography is not always used, the examples that follow show the bibliographic form after the note form.

    Article in a Journal Paginated by Annual Volume

    The volume number follows the name of the journal. If there is an issue number, it may be included after the volume number, preceded by no.

         1. Keith A. Nelson, R. J. Dwayne Miller,

    David R. Lutz, and Michael D. Fayer, "Optical

    Generation of Tunable Ultrasonic Waves,"

    Journal of Applied Physics 53, no. 2 (February

    1982): 1144-49.


    Nelson, Keith A., R. J. Dwayne Miller, David R.

         Lutz, and Michael D. Fayer. "Optical

         Generation of Tunable Ultrasonic Waves."

         Journal of Applied Physics 53, no. 2

         (February 1982): 1144-49.

    Article in a Journal Paginated by Issue

    If the journal is a monthly or bimonthly periodical, include the issue number with the date consisting of the month or quarter of publication and the year.

         1. Dorothy E. Denning, "Resolving the

    Encryption Dilemma: The Case for the Clipper

    Chip," Technology Review 98, no. 5 (July 1995):

    48-55.


    Denning, Dorothy E. "Resolving the Encryption

         Dilemma: The Case for the Clipper Chip."

         Technology Review 98, no. 5 (July 1995):

         48-55.

    Article in a Daily, Weekly, or Biweekly Magazine or Newspaper

    Include the year, month, and day. List the page numbers with p. or pp.

         1. Bob Metcalfe, "The Numbers Show How

    Slowly the Internet Runs Today," Infoworld,

    30 September 1996, p. 34.


    Metcalfe, Bob. "The Numbers Show How Slowly

         the Internet Runs Today." Infoworld, 30

         September 1996, p. 34.

    Paper Published in Conference Proceedings

    Treat a presentation in conference proceedings like an article in an edited book. If the title of the book does not indicate the name of the conference, list, in brackets, after the title the form descriptor "Proceedings of" followed by the name of the conference in capitals.

         1. Osvaldo Jaeggli, "Subject Extraction

    and the Null Subject Parameter," in Proceedings

    of NELS 14, ed. Charles Jones and Pamela

    Sells, New England Linguistics Society 14

    (Amherst, Mass.: Graduate Linguistic Student

    Association, University of Massachusetts at

    Amherst, 5 May 1984), 132-53.


    Jaeggli, Osvaldo. "Subject Extraction and the

         Null Subject Parameter." In Proceedings

         of NELS 14, edited by Charles Jones and

         Pamela Sells, 132-53. New England

         Linguistics Society 14. Amherst, Mass.:

         Graduate Linguistic Student Association,

         University of Massachusetts at Amherst,

         5 May 1984.

    Unpublished Paper Presented at a Meeting

    Give the complete date of the presentation and put the title of the paper in quotation marks, followed by "paper presented at" and the name of the conference and its location.

         1. Ming-Chih Lai, Bih-Horng Chen, and

    Shyan-Ming Yuan, "Toward a New Educational

    Environment" (paper presented at Fourth

    International World Wide Web Conference,

    Boston, 12 December 1995), 10.


    Lai, Ming-chih, Bih-Horng Chen, and Shyan-Ming

         Yuan. "Toward a New Educational

         Environment." Paper presented at Fourth

         International World Wide Web conference,

         Boston, 12 December 1995.

    Unpublished Dissertation

    Enclose the title of the dissertation in quotation marks. Then write "Ph.D. diss" or "Master's thesis" followed by the name of the university and the year.

         1. Frederick G. Glazer, "Hierarchical

    Motion Detection," Ph.D. diss., University of

    Massachusetts, 1987), 102-4.


    Glazer, Frederick G. "Hierarchical Motion

         Detection." Ph.D. diss., University of

         Massachusetts, 1987.

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    Section 10.7

    Council of Biology Editors (CBE) Citation-Sequence System

    The style manual published by the Council of Biology Editors, Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers, 6th. ed. 1994, is widely used not only in the life sciences and medicine but also in many engineering disciplines. In addition to extensive treatment of the conventions for scientific terminology, it present two systems of citation: a number-year system similar to APA style and a citation-sequence system, which uses numbers in the text that refer to a numbered list of references. Many other scientific and technical formats, such as the IEEE reference style, use variations of this general system.

    General Structure

    Guidelines for CBE Citation-Sequence System

    Use of Endnotes or Footnotes

    CBE Numbered List of References

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    Section 10.7.1

    General Structure

    Each reference in CBE style retains throughout the document the same sequential number it is assigned when first cited. That number is then repeated whenever that work is cited in the document. In general, the goal of the CBE style of entries in the reference list is to minimize the number of keystrokes made by the typist: there are no periods after initials; names of journals and publishers are abbreviated; and titles of books, journals, and articles are not underlined, italicized, or enclosed in parentheses.

    Citations in Text

    The oncogene jun has presently become one of the best-known oncogenes because of its ability to act as a transcription factor1. One study2 examined the mRNA levels of jun C, jun B and jun D in various mouse tissues and concluded that each of these genes is expressed independently in different tissues and that they may play a role in growth, development and cellular differentiation.

    Entries in Numbered List of References

    1.  Cavalieri F, Ruscio T, Tinoco R, Benedict

        S, Davis C, Vogt PK. Isolation of three

        new avian sarcoma viruses: ASV9, ASV17,

        and ASV 25. Virology 1985;143:680-3.

    2.  Hirai SI, Ryseck RP, Mechta F, Bravo R,

        Yaniv M. Characterization of jun D: a new

        member of jun protooncogene family.

        Embo J. 1989;8:1433-9.

    Subsequent Citations in Text

    The results presented in this report show that mammary tissues from mice, rats, and humans contain constitutive levels of jun B transcripts. This is not surprising since in a previous survey that did not include mammary tissue, jun B was found to be present in a variety of mouse tissues2.

    --Taniya Sarkar, Wei Zhao, and Nurul H. Sarkar, "Expression of Jun Oncogene in Rodent and Human Breast Tumors," World Wide Web Journal of Biology

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    Section 10.7.2.1

    Name of Author Included in Text

    CBE style, in general, places the names of authors in the running text less frequently than APA, MLA, or CMS styles. The name of a source in the text is always followed by the corresponding note number.

    Williams73 independently reached the same conclusion.

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    Section 10.7.2.2

    Placement of Superscript Note Numbers

    Place the note number directly after the reference, even before punctuation if any, rather than at the end of a clause or sentence.

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    Section 10.7.2.3

    More Than One Work in the Same Citation

    Separate citation numbers with commas and without any spaces. Indicate a sequence of three or more citation numbers as a single range separated by a hyphen.

    Increasing emphasis has been placed on the rapid diagnosis of viral infections. Motion or centrifugation can speed the diagnosis of some viral infections19-22. For example, it has been demonstrated that rolling inoculated cultures at 0.1 to 0.3 rpm may enhance viral isolations and can enhance CPE and/or viral yields for enteroviruses6,28,30-36, rhinoviruses1,11,29,41, reoviruses22, parainfluenza virus type 42, rotaviruses7,18,21,27,37,43, and herpesviruses8.

    --Taniya Sarkar, Wei Zhao, and Nurul H. Sarkar, "Expression of Jun Oncogene in Rodent and Human Breast Tumors," The World Wide Web Journal of Biology

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    Section 10.7.2.4

    Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information

    Cite only published works, forthcoming published works, and unpublished materials available to scholars in a library, a depository, or an archive.

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    Use of Endnotes or Footnotes

    CBE discourages footnotes except in tables. Avoid content, biographical, and additional bibliographic notes.

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    Section 10.7.4.1

    Content Guidelines

    Include all sources that have contributed ideas and information to your document. Be sure that the entries correspond to the references numbered in the text. The reference list should include only works mentioned in the text or appendixes. (Sources that were consulted but not cited in the text may be listed under a separate heading as "Additional References" or "Additional Bibliography.") Include references only to sources that are published or soon-to-be published or that are publicly available unpublished documents.

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    Section 10.7.4.2

    Page Format

    • Title: References or Cited References

    • Ordering of entries: Arrange in numerical sequence by a work's first mention in the document.

    • Spacing: Double-space both within and between entries.

    • Indentation: Place the number of the entry at the left margin followed by a period. Indent the text of all entries two or three spaces (one-quarter or one-third inch) to the right of the period following the largest number in the reference list.

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    Section 10.7.4.3

    General Structure of Entry

    A CBE reference entry has four basic elements: author; title; publication information; and page numbers. End each element with a period, and do not use periods to indicate abbreviations.

    1. Author or authors: List all authors by last name, followed by a space and capitalized initials without any spacing or punctuation. End the author section with a period. If there is more than one author, place a comma after the name of each author except for the final author. The name of the final author should not be preceded by and or an ampersand (&). List the first ten authors of any work. If the work has more than ten authors, list the first ten followed by the phrase "and others."

    2. Titles: Only the first word, proper nouns, proper adjectives, and capitalized abbreviations (such as HIV) of article and book titles are capitalized. However, capitalize all principal words of a journal title. Do not underline or italicize any titles.

    3. Publication information--date format: Always include the year and, in some case, the month and day as part of the publication information. If you have a choice, give dates in the format year, month (abbreviate all months except May), and day (in arabic numerals) without any commas (for example, 1991 Sep 7). In Europe, Canada, and the U.S. military, a day-month-year sequence may be preferred (for example, 7 Sep 1991).

    4. Page numbers: Give the range of page numbers in as few digits as possible without creating any possible ambiguity (1263-7, but 98-203). Indicate the range of page numbers by the single character p without a period. Indicate the total number of pages of a book or a section of a book by the character p.

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    Section 10.7.4.4

    Books

    Title: Give the complete original title.

    Publication information: List the name of the city (written out in full). If the city is not well known or could be confused with another location, add the state (two-letter postal abbreviation) for U.S. locations, or the country for foreign publishers. End the location information with a colon and a space, followed by a short version of the publisher's name (Harcourt for Harcourt Brace & Co., and Beacon for Beacon Press, Inc.). Use all standard abbreviations. After the publisher's name, type a semicolon and the year of publication followed by a period, a space, the number of pages in the book or section, and the character p.

    Book by One Author

    1.  Lightman A. Ancient light: our changing

        view of the universe. Cambridge, MA:

        Harvard University Press; 1991.

    Edited Book or Anthology

    Place the editor or editors (followed by a comma, a space, and editor or editors) in the author position.

    1.  Spudich JL, Satir BH, editors. Sensory

        receptors and signal transduction. New

        York: Wiley-Liss; 1991. 341 p.

    Selection in an Edited Book

    This type of entry has five parts, each ending with a period: (1) the author of the selection; (2) the name of the editor preceded by In:; (3) the title of the edited book; (4) publication information; and (5) the page numbers of the selection.

    1.  Bishop, HB. Trends in oncogenes. In:

        Bradshaw RA, Prentis S, editors.

        Oncogenes and growth factors. New York:

        Elsevier; 1987. p 1-10.

    Book by an Institutional or Organizational Author

    1.  Council of Biology Editors. Scientific

        style and format: The CBE manual for

        authors, editors, and publishers. 6th ed.

        Chicago: Cambridge UP; 1994. 825 p.

    Book with No Listed Author

    To indicate that no author or editor is listed on the title page, start the entry with "[Anonymous]."

    1.  [Anonymous]. Chicago manual of style. 14th

        ed. Chicago: U Chicago P; 1993.

    Translation

    1.  Heisenberg W. The physical principles of the

        quantum theory. Eckart C, Hoyt FC,

        translators. Chicago: U Chicago P; 1930.

        278 p.

    Technical Report

    The CBE format consists of seven parts: (1) author, with the name of the performing organization in parentheses; (2) title; (3) publication information, including publisher or sponsoring organization and date of publication; (4) report number; (5) contract number; (6) total number of pages; and (7) availability statement.

    1.  Heohan CF, Liepins MC, Meuse CA, Wolfson MM.

        (Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts

        Institute of Technology). Summary of

        triple Doppler data, Orlando, 1991.

        Project Report. Lexington, Lincoln

        Laboratories; 1992 Apr 7. Report nr

        ATC-186. Contract nr DOT/FAA/NR-92-2.

        21 p. Available from Lincoln Laboratory,

        244 Wood Street, Lexington, MA 02173.

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    Section 10.7.4.5

    Journal Articles

    The CBE format for journals has three elements: (1) author; (2) title; and (3) journal information, consisting of the journal title and the year and month of publication, ending with a semicolon; the volume number (or issue number in parentheses), a colon, followed by the inclusive page numbers. Journal titles longer than one word are abbreviated according to the standard form used in most biological and medical journals: articles, conjunctions, and prepositions are dropped unless they are part of a name or a scientific or technical term; at least the last two letters of all remaining words are dropped (for example "Microbiology" is abbreviated "Microbiol" and "Journal" is abbreviated "J"). The first letter of each word in a journal title is capitalized.

    Article in a Journal Paginated by Annual Volume

    The month and issue numbers are omitted for journals that are paginated by volume.

    1.  Nelson KA, Miller RJD, Lutz DR, Fayer MD.

        Optical generation of tunable ultrasonic

        waves. J Appl Phys 1982;53:1144-9.

    Article in a Journal Paginated by Issue

    1.  Allemang J. Social studies in gibberish.

        Quart Rev Doublespk 1993;20(1):9-10.

    Article in a Popular Monthly or Bimonthly Periodical

    Use the month and year of publication instead of the volume number.

    1.  Fallows J. Networking technology. Atlan

        Month 1994 Jul:34-6.

    Article in a Daily, Weekly, or Biweekly Magazine or Newspaper

    Include the year, month, and day.

    1.  Metcalfe B. The numbers show how slowly the

        Internet runs today. Infoworld 1996 Sep

        30:34.

    Paper Published in Conference Proceedings

    Treat a presentation in conference proceedings like an article in an edited book.

    1.  Paez-Borrallo JM, Perez-Alavarez IA, Bello

        SZ. Adaptive filtering in data

        communications with self improved error

        reference. IEEE International Conference

        on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing;

        1994 Apr 7-9; Adelaide; Australia.

        Adelaide: IEEE; 1994: p 65-8.

    Unpublished Dissertation

    An unpublished dissertation has five elements: (1) author; (2) title, followed by dissertation (or MSci thesis, etc.) in brackets; (3) publication information; consisting of the location of the institution granting the degree (with the state abbreviation or country name in parentheses), a colon, a space, the name of the institution, and the year of the degree; (4) total number of pages; and (5) availability information.

    1.  Glazer FG. Hierarchical motion detection

        [dissertation]. Amherst (MA): University

        of Massachusetts; 1987. 113 p. Available

        from: University Microfilms, Ann Arbor,

        MI; AAD87-41.

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    Section 10.7.4.6

    Electronic Sources

    The format for documenting electronic sources of information is still being developed.

    CD-ROMs and Other Portable Databases

    Provide the author, data, and title information as you would for a print source. Identify the medium (such as CD-ROM, electronic tape, cartridge tape) in brackets after the title. At the end of the entry, include the location and name of the product.

    Online Sources

    Although the CBE Manual format for online sources does not include the full Internet address, adding such an address is both useful and consistent with the availability elements of other CBE formats. Include the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) address; give the date accessed in parentheses. Enclose the full URL path in angle brackets (< >) with no underlining or punctuation. (Do not end a URL with any punctuation mark, and begin it on a new line rather than breaking it between lines.)

    Journals Published Only Online

    1.  Harnack A, Kleppinger G. Beyond the MLA

        Handbook: documenting electronic sources

        on the Internet. Kairos [serial online]

        1996 June 15; 1(2). Available from the

        Alliance for Computers and Writing via

        the INTERNET;

        <http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2/>

        (Accessed 1996 Sep 14.)

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    Section 10.8

    IEEE Citation-Sequence System

    The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), one of the largest professional organizations in the world, oversees numerous journals and regularly publishes its own Letters, Transactions, and Proceedings of the technical conferences it sponsors.

    It publishes a short guide, Information for IEEE Transactions, Journals, and Letters Authors(1996). The guide includes a brief but concise outline of the IEEE reference style, which is a variation of the CBE Citation-Sequence (C-S) system. IEEE style, like CBE style, uses a single sequentially ordered note number to cite all references to each source mentioned in the text. The IEEE reference list, like the one in the CBE C-S system, is arranged by the order of citation in the text, not in alphabetical order. IEEE style also prohibits the use of content notes, preferring instead that supplementary explanations and examples be included in the text (often in parentheses).

    General Structure

    Guidelines for IEEE Citation-Sequence System

    Use of Endnotes or Footnotes

    IEEE Numbered List of References

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    Section 10.8.1

    General Structure

    The format of the IEEE reference style differs significantly from CBE format. The most significant differences are found in the following areas.
    • Citation numbers: IEEE style encloses citation numbers in running text in square brackets rather than as superscripts. Each citation number in the reference list is also enclosed in square brackets.

    • In-text reference to sources: IEEE style encourages substituting the reference number for the name of the author. For example,

      • [1], [9], and [11] have demonstrated . . .

      Use "in [1]" instead of "in Wiliams et al."

    • Separation of elements: Except for a period ending the title element of a book, IEEE format uses commas rather than periods to separate elements.

    • Author format: Author names are presented in regular name order--that is, the first and middle initials of each author followed by a period, a space, and the last name. For two authors, use and instead of a comma between the two names. For three or more authors, place a comma after each author's name and place and before the name of the last author. A comma always follows the last author's name.

    • Dates: Dates are given in the format day, month (abbreviated with period), and year.

    • Abbreviations: Periods are used with abbreviations.

    • Titles: All beginning and significant words in books titles and journal titles are capitalized and underlined or italicized. Titles of journal articles are enclosed in quotation marks, but, as in CBE style, only the first word of an article is capitalized.

    • Page numbers: Numbers are always preceded by p. or pp., and if more than one page is cited, all the digits of the second number in the range are given.

    Citations in Text

    The oncogene jun has presently become one of the best-known oncogenes because of its ability to act as a transcription factor [1]. One study [2] examined the mRNA levels of jun C, jun B and jun D in various mouse tissues and concluded that each of these genes is expressed independently in different tissues and that they may play a role in growth, development and cellular differentiation.

    Entries in Numbered List of References

    [1] F. Cavalieri, T. Ruscio, R. Tinoco, S.

        Benedict, C. Davis, and P. K. Vogt,

        "Isolation of three new avian sarcoma

        viruses: ASV9, ASV17, and ASV 25,"

        Virology, vol. 143, pp. 680-683, 1985.

    [2] S. I. Hirai, R. P. Ryseck, F. Mechta, R.

        Bravo, M. Yaniv, "Characterization of

        jun D: a new member of the jun

        protooncogene family," Embo Journ., vol.

        8, pp. 1433-1438, 1989.

    Subsequent Citations

    The results presented in this report show that mammary tissues from mice, rats, and humans, contain constitutive levels of jun B transcripts. This is not surprising since in a previous survey that did not include mammary tissue, jun B was found to be present in a variety of mouse tissues [2].

    --Taniya Sarkar, Wei Zhao, and Nurul H. Sarkar, "Expression of Jun Oncogene in Rodent and Human Breast Tumors," World Wide Web Journal of Biology

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    Section 10.8.2.1

    Placement of Note Numbers

    Place the note number directly after the reference rather than at the end of a clause or sentence.

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    Section 10.8.2.2

    Name of Author Included in Text

    In general, use a note number instead of the author's name.

    The same conclusion was demonstrated by [17] independently.

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    Section 10.8.2.3

    More Than One Work in the Same Citation

    Separate citation numbers with commas and without any spaces. Indicate a sequence of three or more citation numbers as a single range separated by a hyphen.

    The same effect was reported by [3,7,12].

    Increasing emphasis has been placed on the rapid diagnosis of viral infections. Motion or centrifugation can speed the diagnosis of some viral infections [19-22].

    --Taniya Sarkar, Wei Zhao, and Nurul H. Sarkar, "Expression of Jun Oncogene in Rodent and Human Breast Tumors," World Wide Web Journal of Biology

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    Section 10.8.2.4

    Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information

    Cite only published works, forthcoming published works, and unpublished materials available to scholars in a library, a depository, or an archive.

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    Section 10.8.3

    Use of Endnotes or Footnotes

    Avoid content, biographical, and additional bibliographic notes.

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    Section 10.8.4.1

    Content Guidelines

    Include all sources that have contributed ideas and information to your document. Be sure that the entries correspond to and match the in-text reference notes. The reference list should include only works mentioned in the text. Each appendix should have its own reference list.

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    Section 10.8.4.2

    Page Format

    • Title: References (placed flush left)

    • Ordering of entries: Arrange in numerical sequence by a work's first mention in the document.

    • Spacing: Double-space both within and between entries.

    • Indentation: Place the number of the entry at the left margin and enclose it in brackets. Indent the text of all entries two or three spaces (one-quarter or one-third inch) to the right of the closing bracket following the largest number in the reference list.

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    Section 10.8.4.3

    Books

    Book by One Author

    [1] A. Lightman, Ancient Light: Our Changing

        View of the Universe. Cambridge, MA:

        Harvard University Press, 1991.

    Edited Book or Anthology

    [1] J. L. Spudich and B. H. Satir, Eds.,

        Sensory Receptors and Signal Transduction.

        New York: Wiley-Liss, 1991.

    Selection in an Edited Book

    [1] E. D. Lipson and B. D. Horwitz,

        "Photosensory Reception and Transduction,"

        in Sensory Receptors and Signal

        Transduction, J. L. Spudich and B. H.

        Satir, Eds. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1991,

        pp. 1-64.

    Book by an Institutional or Organizational Author

    [1] Council of Biology Editors, Scientific

        Style and Format: The CBE Manual for

        Authors, Editors, and Publishers, 6th ed.,

        Chicago: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

    Translation

    [1] W. Heisenberg, The Physical Principles of

        the Quantum Theory, C. Eckart and F. C.

        Hoyt, Trans., Chicago: University of

        Chicago Press, 1930.

    Technical Report

    [1] C. F. Heohan, M. C. Liepins, C. A. Meuse,

        M. M. Wolfson, "Summary of triple Doppler

        data, Orlando, 1991," MIT Lincoln

        Laboratory, Lexington, MA. Tech. Rep.

        ATC-186 (DOT/FAA/NR-92-2), 7 Apr. 1992.

    Government Publication

    [1] National Aeronautics and Space

        Administration, NASA Pocket Statistics.

        Washington, DC: Office of Headquarters

        Operations, 1991.

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    Section 10.8.4.4

    Journal Articles

    Article in a Journal Paginated by Annual Volume

    [1] K. A. Nelson, R. J. Dwayne Miller, D. R.

        Lutz, and M. D. Fayer, "Optical

        generation of tunable ultrasonic waves,"

        Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 53, no. 2,

        Feb., pp. 1144-1149, 1982.

    Article in a Professional Journal Paginated by Issue

    [1] J. Allemang, "Social studies in gibberish,"

        Quarterly Review of Doublespeak, vol. 20,

        no. 1, pp. 9-10, 1993.

    Article in a Popular Monthly or Bimonthly Periodical

    If the journal is a monthly or bimonthly periodical, use the month and year of publication instead of the volume number.

    [1] J. Fallows, "Networking technology,"

        Atlantic Monthly, Jul., p. 34-36, 1994.

    Article in a Daily, Weekly, or Biweekly Magazine or Newspaper

    Include the year, month, and day.

    [1] B. Metcalfe, "The numbers show how slowly

        the Internet runs today," Infoworld, 30

        Sep., p. 34, 1996.

    Paper Published in Conference Proceedings

    Treat a presentation in conference proceedings like an article in an edited book.

    [1] J. M. Paez-Borrallo, I. A. Perez-Alavarez,

        and S. Z. Bello, "Adaptive filtering in

        data communications with self improved

        error reference," In Proc. IEEE ICASSP

        '94, 1994, pp. 65-68.

    Unpublished Paper Presented at a Conference

    [1] M. Lai, B. Chen, and S. Yuan, "Toward a

        new educational environment," presented

        at 4th Int. World Wide Web Conf. Boston,

        MA, 1995.

    Unpublished Dissertation

    [1] F. G. Glazer, "Hierarchical motion

        detection," diss, Amherst: University of

        Massachusetts, 1987.

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    Section 10.8.4.5

    Electronic Sources

    The IEEE subscribes to the guidelines for citing electronic sources being developed by the International Standards Organization.

    Articles in an Electronic Journal

    Give the author, title, type of medium (enclosed in brackets), volume, issue number (in parentheses), page number (if given), and the year and month of publication (in parentheses). Then give the full Internet address or the name of the online service provider prefaced by "Available:"

    [1] A. Harnack and G. Kleppinger, "Beyond the

        MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic

        Sources on the Internet," Kairos, [Online

        serial] 1(2), (1996 Sum), Available HTTP:

        http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2/

    Other Online Documents

    [1] T. Land, "Web extension to American Psychological Association

        style (WEAPAS)," [Online document], 1996

        Mar 31 (Rev. 1.2.4), [cited 1996 Sep 14], Available HTTP:

        http://www.nyu.edu/pages/psychology/WEAPAS/

    [1] P. Curtis, "Mudding: Social phenomena in

        text-based virtual realities," [Online

        document], Aug. 1992, [1996 Aug 30],

        Available FTP:

        parcftp.xerox.com/pub/MOO/papers/DIAC921992.

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    Section 11.1

    Nouns

    A noun names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea, and is often preceded by an article (a, an, the). The words technician, laboratory, equipment, and hypothesis are nouns.

    See also: Countable and Uncountable Nouns, Other Grammatical Characteristics of Nouns, and Possession.

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    Section 11.1.1

    Countable and Uncountable Nouns

    Nouns can be classified into two groups, countable and uncountable. Countable nouns typically occur as discrete units that can be counted, whereas uncountable nouns, also called mass nouns, are typically substances or concepts.

    Countable: electron, flask, joule

    Uncountable: oxygen, heat, patriotism

    Countable nouns can be made plural. Uncountable nouns are not used in the plural.

    Countable: polar regions, transistors, earthquakes

    Uncountable: carbon dioxide, infrared radiation, equipment

    You can refer to discrete units of uncountable nouns by adding a counting word, such as a unit of measurement, or the general word piece.

    Unacceptable

    a carbon dioxide; an equipment

    Acceptable

    a molecule of carbon dioxide; a piece of equipment

    Although it is often easy to distinguish between countable and uncountable nouns, the distinction is not always obvious for all nouns. In addition, many nouns can be used as either countable or uncountable elements, but with different meanings. For this reason, you may find it useful to consult a specialized dictionary when you are not sure whether a particular noun is countable or uncountable or whether it has special meanings in one category or the other.

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    Section 11.1.1.1

    Countable Nouns

    Countable nouns are refer to items or concepts that may be counted; thus, they may be either singular or plural. Although you can often tell whether a noun is countable or uncountable by its meaning, this determination is not always predictable. If you are unsure whether a given noun is countable or uncountable, check a specialized dictionary. The words laboratory, electron, and hypothesis are countable nouns (their plurals are laboratories, electrons, and hypotheses).

    Use the ending -s to form the plural of most countable nouns.

    Always use an article or some other determiner before a singular countable noun.

    Unacceptable

    Largest jet plane holds enough fuel to drive ordinary car four times around world.

    Acceptable

    The largest jet plane holds enough fuel to drive an ordinary car four times around the world.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    Do not use an article before a plural countable noun unless you are restricting the interpretation of the noun in some way.

    Unacceptable

    For the most part, chemistry treats the atoms as if they were the tiny yet solid balls of matter which stick together in the various arrangements to form substances of which the everyday world is composed.

    Acceptable

    For the most part, chemistry treats atoms as if they were tiny yet solid balls of matter which stick together in various arrangements to form the substances of which the everyday world is composed. [The last phrase, "of which . . . composed," restricts the interpretation of the word "substances."]

    --Philip Ball, Designing the Molecular World

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    Section 11.1.1.2

    Uncountable (Mass) Nouns

    Uncountable (mass) nouns refer to substances, concepts, or general terms for classes of items. The following words are uncountable nouns: oxygen (substance), education (concept), equipment (general term).

    Do not use an article with an uncountable noun if you are referring to the noun in a general sense.

    Unacceptable

    Marie and Pierre Curie discovered the radioactivity in 1898.

    Acceptable

    Marie and Pierre Curie discovered radioactivity in 1898.

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    Section 11.1.2

    Other Grammatical Characteristics of Nouns

    Besides countability, nouns can be described by four other important grammatical characteristics: gender, number, person, and case. These grammatical characteristics are reflected in the choice of pronouns, the choice of number endings on the noun (singular or plural), and the choice of subject-verb agreement endings when the noun is a subject.

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    Section 11.1.2.1

    Gender

    In English, as in many other languages, you must keep the gender of a noun in mind when choosing a pronoun to replace or refer to it. Nouns that refer to male human beings (or animals, if the sex is significant) are masculine; nouns that refer to female human beings (or animals, if the sex is significant) are feminine; nouns that refer to inanimate objects or abstract concepts are neuter. (See also Sexist Language.)

    Isaac Newton (masculine), Dorothy Mary Crowfoot (feminine), the device, the result (neuter)

    When replacing a masculine or feminine noun with a pronoun, choose the pronoun that corresponds in gender to the noun.

    Gas bubbles were first implicated in decompression illness by the French physiologist Paul Bert. He proved that the bubbles were composed of nitrogen; because oxygen is metabolized by tissue cells, it is not usually a problem during decompression.

    --"The Physiology of Decompression Illness," Scientific American

    Mary Leakey first went to Kenya and Tanzania in 1935 and, except for forays to Europe and the U.S., she has made them her home.

    --"Profile: Mary Leakey," Scientific American (modified)

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    Section 11.1.2.2

    Number

    Number refers to the singular or plural form. Keep the number of a noun in mind when choosing pronouns, noun endings, articles, and subject-verb agreement endings.

    Countable nouns can be either singular or plural. Uncountable nouns can usually appear only in the singular.

    Unacceptable

    equipments

    Acceptable

    equipment

    When you use a noun in the plural, add the plural ending (usually -s) to the singular of the noun.

    Unacceptable

    two electron

    Acceptable

    two electrons

    Some nouns have irregular plural forms--for example, foot, feet; child, children; and sheep, sheep. If you are unsure of the plural form of a noun, check the noun in a dictionary.

    Unacceptable

    hypothesises

    Acceptable

    hypotheses

    When you use a plural noun as a subject, you must use a plural verb. See Subject-Verb Agreement.

    Do not use the indefinite article a or an with plural nouns. See Articles.

    When using a pronoun to replace a singular noun that refers to a person whose gender is unknown (for example, scientist, student), be careful to avoid sexist language. Do not replace a singular noun with the plural pronoun they. Usually the best course is one of the following: make the noun (hence the pronoun) plural, use a gender-free paraphrase such as person, or rephrase entirely to avoid mention of gender.

    When replacing a plural noun with a pronoun, choose the plural pronoun they.

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    Section 11.1.2.3

    Person

    Person is determined by whether writers are referring to themselves, to their readers, or to objects, ideas or persons other than themselves and their readers. Person is important for choosing pronouns and subject-verb agreement endings. Pronouns may have any of these three persons in English:

    • First person, which includes the writer (I/we)
    • Second person, which includes the reader and excludes the writer (you)
    • Third person, which excludes both the writer and the reader (he/she/it/they)

    Choose appropriate pronouns to express the nouns involved in your sentences.

    Subject-verb agreement also depends on the person of the subject. In the present tense, if the subject is a third-person singular noun, then the verb usually takes the agreement ending -s.

    The president reads my report over and over without any show of satisfaction.

    If you are using the verb be in the past tense and the subject is a first- or third-person singular noun (I, he, she, it), use was.

    Nevertheless, my department head was impressed by the report.

    If the subject is a second-person singular noun (you) or a first-, second- or third-person plural noun (we, you, they), use were.

    We (you, they) were scheduled to read the report after the president finished it.

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    Section 11.1.3

    Proper Nouns

    Proper nouns are nouns that are unique and have names, such as individual people, cities, or buildings--for example, Albert Einstein, Boston, Barton Library.

    The first letter of each word in the name of a proper noun should be capitalized (except for short prepositions and articles).

    Most proper nouns do not require articles. See Articles--Proper Nouns.

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    Section 11.1.4

    Possession

    A noun that possesses another noun is placed before the noun it possesses and is followed by the possessive ending.

    Boole's book, An Investigation into the Laws of Thought, is a classic study in symbolic logic. [singular possession]

    The animals' responses fell into a clear pattern. [plural possession]

    Do not use the possessive ending to express the simple plural.

    Unacceptable

    Atom's containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are different forms, or isotopes, of the same element.

    Acceptable

    Atoms containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are different forms, or isotopes, of the same element.

    --"Atom," The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia

    To form the possessive case of plural nouns ending in -s, add only an apostrophe. To form the possessive case of nouns that have irregular plurals, add -'s. See Apostrophe.

    Puffins' large bills are adapted for carrying several fish at once.

    --"Puffin," The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia (modified)

    Despite protozoa's small size and lack of multicellular organization, they carry on all the metabolic functions of higher animals: digestion, excretion, respiration, and coordination of movement.

    --"Protozoan," The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia

    If the possessor noun consists of more than one word or if there is joint possession, add -'s to the last word of the possessor.

    Leslie C. Perelman, Edward Barrett, and James Paradis's Mayfield Handbook of Technical and Scientific Writing is readily available.

    If, however, possession is separate, follow both possessor's names with the possessive form.

    Leslie C. Perelman's and Edward Barrett's views are similar.

    If the possessor noun is a personal pronoun, use the possessive case form of the personal pronoun. See Pronoun Case.

    The patients in whom the technique was successful improved their professional effectiveness and social ease.

    --"Anal Dynamic Graciloplasty in the Treatment of Intractable Fecal Incontinence," New England Journal of Medicine (modified)

    Use the possessive ending with nouns that are the subjects of gerunds.

    Modern society's altering the hydrology of the Everglades has profoundly affected the ecology of the region.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

    Traditionally, the possessive ending has been restricted to human or animate nouns, and nonanimate possessors have been expressed in an of-phrase following the noun that was possessed. Some readers continue to prefer that this distinction be made.

    Mercury's diameter is 4878 kilometers.

    The diameter of Mercury is 4878 kilometers.

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    Section 11.2

    Pronouns

    A pronoun takes the place of a noun in referring to a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. Pronouns can be personal, relative, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, reciprocal, or reflexive.

    Types of Pronouns

    Personal Pronouns: I, you, we

    Relative Pronouns: that, which

    Demonstrative pronouns: this, that

    Interrogative Pronouns: who, what

    Indefinite Pronouns: somebody, nothing

    Reciprocal Pronoun: each other

    Reflexive Pronouns: herself, yourself

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    Section 11.2.1

    Pronoun Antecedent

    The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun that the pronoun is intended to refer to.

    In the United States, an astronaut candidate must be recommended by her previous organization.

    --"Astronaut Selection and Training," Compton's Encyclopedia (modified)

    Make sure your pronoun agrees in gender and number with its intended antecedent. Make sure the antecedent of your pronoun is clear and unambiguous. See Pronoun Reference.

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    Section 11.2.2

    Personal Pronouns

    Personal pronouns replace or refer to specific nouns, especially nouns referring to the people or objects involved in the sentence. Common personal pronouns include I, you, her, its, and they.

    We heated the samples and measured their change in weight over five seconds. [We is the subject of the sentence; their refers to the noun samples.]

    Choose a pronoun that matches the number and gender of the noun it refers to. Make sure that no other nouns with the same number and gender come between your pronoun and its antecedent. See Pronoun Reference.

    Choose the form of the pronoun that is appropriate for its role in the sentence. See Pronoun Case.

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    Section 11.2.3

    Relative Pronouns

    Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses. A relative pronoun serves to link the relative clause to the noun that the clause modifies. Some common relative pronouns are that, who, whoever, and which.

    Interleukin-12 does not retard blood vessel growth itself. Instead, it causes immune cells to secrete gamma-interferon, a substance which stimulates the production of inducible protein-10. [Which introduces the relative clause that modifies the noun substance].

    --Kristin Leutwyler, "An Inside Job," Scientific American (modified)

    Choose a relative pronoun that is appropriate for the type of relative clause (restrictive or nonrestrictive), the type of noun being replaced or referred to (person, thing, location, or time), and the role that the replaced noun plays in the relative clause (subject or object).

    Be careful about subject-verb agreement with relative pronouns.

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    Section 11.2.4

    Demonstrative Pronouns

    Demonstrative pronouns replace or refer to nouns or noun phrases and, occasionally, larger units of a sentence.

    In the decades following the Civil War, fifteen separate categories of currency in multiple denominations were issued. These included Demand Notes, U.S. Notes, National Bank Notes, and Federal Reserve Notes. [These replaces fifteen separate categories of currency.]

    --Schafrik and Church, "Protecting the Greenback," Scientific American (modified)

    You can use demonstrative pronouns to reduce repetition and wordiness; however, be careful not to create broad pronoun reference. Good technical writing is precise.

    Unacceptable

    Caution: Be careful not to mix alkaline earth metals with water, which may cause an explosion. This is dangerous at best. [What is dangerous, mixing alkaline earth metals with water or the explosion that such mixing can cause?]

    Acceptable

    Caution: Be careful not to mix alkaline earth metals with water, which may cause an explosion. Such an explosion is dangerous at best.

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    Section 11.2.5

    Interrogative Pronouns

    Interrogative pronouns replace unknown nouns in questions. Some common interrogative pronouns are who, whose, what, and which.

    What is the clinical name of that compound? [What is the subject of the question.]

    Of the two methods, which proved more effective? [Which refers to methods.]

    Choose the form of who carefully so that it matches the context of the sentence. See Pronoun Case.

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    Section 11.2.6

    Indefinite Pronouns

    Indefinite pronouns replace nouns whose identity is undetermined or varies. Common indefinite pronouns include everyone, anything, somebody, no one, and whoever.

    Undetermined Identity

    In 1877, no one could imagine following the individual histories of thousands of gas molecules, and so Boltzmann opted for following average behavior.

    --Donald M. McCloskey, "Computation Outstrips Analysis" (modified)

    Varying Identity

    Anyone who has at least a 90% average at the end of the semester does not have to take the final examination.

    Check the verb agreement carefully when using an indefinite pronoun as a subject. Indefinite pronouns often contain quantifiers, which have special rules for subject-verb agreement.

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    Section 11.2.7

    Reciprocal Pronouns

    Reciprocal pronouns are special pronouns that are used when the individual members that make up a plural subject noun take each other as their objects. Some common reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another.

    The astronauts congratulated one another after successfully completing the mission. [The members of the subject, astronauts, take the other members of their own group as objects.]

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    Section 11.2.8

    Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

    Reflexive pronouns are used when a subject noun takes itself as its own object. Some common reflexive pronouns are myself, ourselves, oneself, and herself.

    Certain tomopterid worms defend themselves by squirting out a bioluminescent fluid.

    --Bruce Robison, "Light in the Ocean's Midwaters," Scientific American (modified)

    Reflexive pronouns can also be used to emphasize the subject. In that case, they are called intensive pronouns.

    I did it myself.

    Use intensive pronouns sparingly, since they can make your document wordy.

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    Section 11.3

    Verbs

    Verbs describe actions--what has happened, what is happening, or what will or might happen--or a condition.

    Verbs can be divided into two categories, transitive and intransitive. A transitive verb takes an object; an intransitive verb does not.

    Verbs must always agree with their subjects.

    Sometimes with the addition of auxiliary verbs, verbs express

    • tense (past, present or future), the time when an action happened (or will happen)
      • ; in all tenses, verbs can have a progressive form.

    • mood (indicative, imperative, or subjunctive), the attitude of the speaker towards the action or the certainty with which the action takes (or took) place.

    • voice (active or passive), whether the subject is the doer or receiver of the action expressed by the verb.

    Each of these categories is expressed with a particular verb form (base form, present participle, or past participle). Although the vast majority of English verbs are regular, many of the most commonly used verbs are irregular.

    Verbs can be modified, or described, by adverbs.

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    Section 11.3.1

    Verb Tense

    Verb tense places an event in the present, the past, or the future.

    Simple Present Tense

    As an object approaches the speed of light, its mass rises.

    Simple Past Tense

    In 1887, Albert Michelson and Edward Morley compared the speed of light in the direction of the earth's motion with that at right angles to the earth's motion.

    --Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time

    Future Tense

    We will calculate our results to the nearest tenth.

    See also Present Perfect Tense, Past Perfect Tense, and Future Perfect Tense.

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    Section 11.3.1.1

    Simple Present Tense

    Use the simple present tense to express facts, states of being, or actions that are occurring now or that occur regularly.

    Some common adverbs that typically appear with the simple present are always, frequently, often, sometimes, and usually.

    When icebergs calve off heavy glaciers, the broken faces are always blue.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    As rain-swollen streams flow into a lake behind a dam, there is a buildup of potential energy, which can be transformed into kinetic energy as water is harnessed to flow down a chute.

    --C. Donald Ahrens, Meteorology Today

    When you use the simple present tense, be careful to use the correct verb form so that you do not produce a subject-verb agreement error.

    Use the simple present tense when reporting or summarizing another author's words.

    In his book The Universe, Isaac Asimov seeks to trace the steps by which mankind's grasp of the universe widened and deepened.

    You can also use the simple present tense to express future actions that are scheduled to occur. Some verbs that are commonly used in the simple present to express the future are arrive, begin, close, come, end, finish, leave, open, return, and start.

    The spring term begins in January next year.

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    Section 11.3.1.2

    Simple Past Tense

    Use the simple past tense to express action completed at a specific time in the past. To form the past tense, add the ending -ed to the base form of the verb. (But see Irregular Verbs for verbs that form the past tense differently.)

    In the Los Angeles basin during December 1982, acid fog reached a level of acidity comparable to that of vinegar.

    --C. Donald Ahrens, Meteorology Today

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    Section 11.3.1.3

    Future Tense

    Use the future tense to indicate action that will occur at some point after the present. You can express future tense by using a verb in the simple present with a future adverb, by using the auxiliary will, or by using the expression is going to or are going to.

    The spring term begins in January next year. [future tense expressed with simple present verb]

    Each second, in the superheated core of the sun, 4 million tons of matter are turned into pure energy. This process is the byproduct of a nuclear reaction that converts nearly a billion tons of the simplest element, hydrogen, into a like amount of the slightly more complex element, helium. This conversion of hydrogen to helium, however, is a one-way street and eventually the Sun will simply run out of fuel. At that point, the energy to sustain the thermal pressure of the core will disappear and the Sun will begin to shrink. [future tense expressed with will]

    --David Helfand, "Supernovae: Creative Cataclysms in the Galaxy"

    The software company will come out with a new operating system next year. [future tense expressed with will]

    The software company announced that it is going to come out with a new operating system early next year. [future tense expressed with is going to or are going to]

    You can describe a past action that was in the future of another past action by using the past tense of the auxiliary will.

    The company promised it would deliver the prototype on time.

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    Section 11.3.1.4

    Present Perfect Tense

    Use the present perfect tense to express states or actions that occurred at an unspecified time in the past, were repeated in the past, or began at an unknown or arbitrary time in the past and continue into the present.

    Beverage cans have emerged as the single most important market for aluminum. [unspecified time]

    --William Hostold and John Duncan, "The Aluminum Beverage Can," Scientific American (modified)

    Tomsk-7, whose existence was classified until about 1990, is thought to have poured and pumped about a billion curies of high-level waste, or 20 Chernobyls' worth, into lakes in the region and into underground formations. [repeated action]

    --Tim Beardsley, "Lethal Legacy," Scientific American

    For more than a century, researchers have known that exposure to high pressure can injure or kill. [past action that continues]

    --Richard Moon, Richard Vann, and Peter Bennett, "The Physiology of Decompression Illness," Scientific American

    To form the present perfect, use the present tense form of the auxiliary have and the past participle of the following verb. The perfect is commonly used with the following adverbs: already, always, ever, for, just, lately, never, recently, since, still, and yet.

    Since World War II, chemists have released more than 70,000 new chemical compounds into the environment.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    Turnips have been cultivated for 4,000 years.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

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    Section 11.3.1.5

    Past Perfect Tense

    Use the past perfect tense to express states or actions that began and came to an end before a specific point in the past. To form the past perfect, use the past tense form of the auxiliary have and the past participle of the following verb.

    By 150 B.C, the Greeks had accurately determined the shape and dimensions of the Earth and the distance of the Moon, but had not managed to probe very far beyond that.

    --Isaac Asimov, The Universe

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    Section 11.3.1.6

    Future Perfect Tense

    Use the future perfect tense to express states or actions that will have come to an end before a specific point in the future. To form the future perfect, use the auxiliaries will have and the past participle of the following verb.

    By the end of the seventh or eighth day of operations, the rover will have accomplished many of its primary experiments.

    --NASA, The Mars Pathfinder Mission Plan (modified)

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    Section 11.3.1.7

    Progressive Form

    Use the progressive form (sometimes called the continuous form) in conjunction with any verb tense (present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect) to express an action that is ongoing with respect to a point in time or another action. To make the progressive, use a form of the auxiliary be and the present participle of the following verb.
    In many sections of the United States, the productive topsoil is rapidly disappearing. [present tense: the disappearing is ongoing with respect to the present time]

    In many sections of the United States, the productive topsoil was rapidly disappearing. [past tense: the disappearing was ongoing with respect to a particular point in time]

    --James Gilluly, Principles of Geology (modified)

    Although astronomers have been accumulating observations of all the stages in a star's life in recent years, it is fair to say that really tremendous strides have been taken within the past few years in observing the very earliest stages of stellar life. [present perfect: the accumulating was ongoing in the past and continues to be ongoing in the present time]

    --Martin Cohen, "Star Birth and Maturity"

    Do not use the progressive form with states or facts; use the simple present tense or simple past tense instead. Some verbs that commonly describe states are appear, appreciate, be, believe, belong, care, comprise, consider, contain, cost, desire, dislike, doubt, entail, envy, fear, feel, forget, hate, have, hear, imagine, include, know, like, look, love, mean, mind, need, owe, own, possess, prefer, realize, recognize, remember, resemble, see, seem, suppose, taste, think, trust, understand, want, and weigh.

    Unacceptable

    When we compare what we can see of our Galaxy with other galaxies, it is appearing that our Milky Way Galaxy is resembling a spiral like many other galaxies, stoked with hundreds of billions of stars unevenly interlaced throughout chaotic swirls of interstellar gas and dust.

    Acceptable

    When we compare what we can see of our Galaxy with other galaxies, it appears that our Milky Way Galaxy resembles a spiral like many other galaxies, stoked with hundreds of billions of stars unevenly interlaced throughout chaotic swirls of interstellar gas and dust.

    --Eric J. Chaisson, "Our Galaxy"

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    Section 11.3.2

    Voice

    Voice is used to tell whether the subject of the sentence or clause performs the action of the verb or receives the action of the verb. There are two voices in English: active and passive. In the active voice, the subject of the sentence is the agent, or performer of the action, and the object is the receiver of the action. In the passive voice, the grammatical subject of the sentence is the receiver of the action. The agent, if expressed at all, is expressed after the verb in a by-phrase.

    Use the passive voice to express actions in which the agent is arbitrary, not known, or not important. Otherwise, use the active voice. To form the passive, use a form of the auxiliary be followed by the past participle of the main verb, and place the receiver of the action in the subject position.

    Active Voice

    J. Robert Oppenheimer gave the first comprehensive description of a neutron star in 1939, shortly before he began working on the first atomic bomb. [The agent, Oppenheimer, is the subject. The receiver of the action, description, is the object.]

    Passive Voice

    The first comprehensive description of a neutron star was given by J. Robert Oppenheimer in 1939, shortly before he began working on the first atomic bomb. [The receiver of the action, description is the subject. The agent, Oppenheimer, is in a by-phrase.]

    --William J. Kaufmann, "The Black Hole"

    In the passive voice, express the agent only if it provides important information for the sentence. If you choose to express the agent, do so in a by-phrase following the verb.

    The nickel content of steel was cut by the steel manufacturers during World War II and never brought back to pre-war levels. Consequently, classic cars made before the war tend to hold up much longer than later models. [agent, steel manufacturers, important to the writer's purpose]

    The nickel content of steel was cut during World War II and never brought back to pre-war levels. Consequently, classic cars made before the war tend to hold up much longer than later models. [agent not important to the writer's purpose]

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

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    Section 11.3.3

    Mood

    Mood (indicative, imperative, or subjunctive) is used to express the attitude of the writer toward the state or action, or the certainty or truthfulness of the state or action.

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    Section 11.3.3.1

    Indicative Mood

    The indicative mood expresses a fact or a factual condition. Verbs in the indicative mood take ordinary tense or agreement endings. Most questions, as well as most statements, are in the indicative mood.

    While conceptually simple, islet transplantation has been difficult to implement.

    Has islet transplantation been difficult to implement?

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    Section 11.3.3.2

    Imperative Mood

    The imperative mood is used to demand or require that an action be performed. It is usually found only in the present tense, second person. To form the imperative mood, use the base form of the verb.

    Heat the water to 65°C before adding the sample.

    The imperative mood is very powerful. It is often appropriate to use the imperative mood when giving instructions. However, in other types of documents, such as letters, procedures, or recommendations, the bare imperative may be too strong. To tone down the effect of the imperative, you can use "politeness" words, such as please, or rephrase in the indicative with an auxiliary verb such as would.

    Send the relevant documents to us as soon as possible. [This imperative might be received by some readers as being too direct, and thus, impolite.]

    Would you please send the relevant documents to us as soon as possible? [This request is more polite than the previous one.]

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    Section 11.3.3.3

    Subjunctive Mood

    Use the subjunctive mood in that-clauses that are the complements of verbs expressing an obligation or a demand (for instance, advise, ask, command, demand, desire, insist, propose, recommend, request, or suggest) and to express conditions contrary to fact.

    The consultant recommended that the staff be recertified in laboratory safety procedures. [that-clause expressing obligation or demand]

    If the Earth were the size of a basketball, its surface would be smoother than a basketball's. [condition contrary to fact]

    Do not use the auxiliary do when you negate the that-clause with not.

    When you are performing this procedure, it is crucial that the temperature does not rise significantly.

    When you are performing this procedure, it is crucial that the temperature not rise significantly.

    The conditional, often considered a variety of the subjunctive, is used to express states or actions contrary to fact, but whose truth or possible implications you would like to consider. In particular, use the conditional in if clauses whose conditions are not true. To form the conditional for the present tense or the future tense, use the past tense form of the verb.

    Researchers assume that a nuclear war would raise an enormous pall of thick, sooty smoke from massive fires that would burn for days, even weeks, following an attack.

    --C. Donald Ahrens, Meteorology Today

    If we could travel far beyond the protective blanket of air that shelters our planet, beyond the ancient craters of the moon, and beyond the orbits of the nine known planets, we would reach the realm of interstellar space, where our solar system leaves off and the rest of the universe begins.

    --Andrew Fraknoi, "The Universe: An Introduction"

    To express the past tense of the conditional, add the auxiliary have to your verb phrase.

    Scientists should have recognized the possibility of black holes in 1916, when the German astronomer Karl Schwarzchild succeeded in solving Einstein's equations for the gravity surrounding a point mass. [The combination of should (conditional) and have (past) signals that this was an unreal past action; the recognizing did not take place.]

    --William J. Kaufmann, "The Black Hole"

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    Section 11.3.4

    Auxiliary Verbs

    An auxiliary verb is a helping verb used to express tense, mood, or voice. The auxiliaries include have (has,had), be (am, is, are, was, were), do (does/did), and the modal auxiliaries (such as must, can, will, and should).

    Some researchers assert that clockless processors will soon become cheaper, more reliable, more energy efficient, and easier to design than chips based on today's prevailing technology.

    --W. Wayt, "Turning Back the Clock," Scientific American (modified)

    Auxiliary verbs differ from other verbs in the way they are negated and in the positions they may occupy in the sentence.

    Negation and Auxiliary Verbs

    You can negate a sentence or clause by placing the first auxiliary verb before the negative word not.

    Virtually every developing country can point to examples of dilapidated wind pumps or photovoltaic power systems that either did not work or could not be repaired with local materials.

    --Daniel Kammen, "Cookstoves for the Developing World," Scientific American

    If you use more than one auxiliary verb in a verb phrase, place only the first auxiliary verb before not; place the rest after not.

    Unacceptable

    If transistors had been not developed during the first half of this century, the world in which we live would be drastically different today.

    Acceptable

    If transistors had not been developed during the first half of this century, the world in which we live would be drastically different today.

    You can negate a sentence or clause that does not contain an auxiliary verb by introducing the auxiliary do before not.

    Unacceptable

    The planet Mercury tilts not, so it does not have seasons.

    Acceptable

    The planet Mercury does not tilt, so it does not have seasons.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News (modified)

    Remember that there are two have verbs, one an auxiliary and one a main verb. The auxiliary have is associated with perfect tense. The main verb have refers to possession, obligation, or causation. You can place only the auxiliary have before not; the main verb have must be negated with do.

    Unacceptable

    The planet Mercury does not tilt, so it has not seasons.

    Acceptable

    The planet Mercury does not tilt, so it does not have seasons.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News (modified)

    Where Auxiliary Verbs Can Appear in a Sentence

    Auxiliary verbs can appear before the subject of a sentence if inverted word order is called for (as in questions, for instance).

    How can physicists seek the massive particles that give logic and symmetry to theories of the fundamental elements of matter?

    --David B. Kline, "Low Energy Ways to Observe High-Energy Phenomena," Scientific American

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    Section 11.3.5

    Modal Auxiliaries

    Modal auxiliaries are special auxiliary verbs that express the degree of certainty of the action in the sentence, or the attitude or opinion of the writer concerning the action. Some common modal auxiliaries are must, can, will, and should. The following chart lists the forms and meanings of the modal auxiliaries in English.

    Present Past/Conditional Meanings
    may might possible, not certain, with permission (negative=not certain)
    can could possible, physically able, optional (negative=not possible)
    will would definite future, desired, promised
    shall should probable future, intended future (conditional=morally advisable)
    must -- obligatory, urgent, necessary, logical deduction

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    Section 11.3.6

    Nonfinite Verbs

    Verbs that do not have tense or agreement endings are nonfinite (also called verbals).

    Nonfinite verbs can be classified as consisting of five types: base forms, present participles, past participles, infinitives, and gerunds. (Some grammarians combine the categories of base form and infinitive.)

    We watched the substance explode. [base form]

    The growing yeast culture has special storage requirements. [present participle]

    The gas chromatograph fixed last week is broken again. [past participle]

    When NASA first organized the Viking Lander missions to Mars, one of the most vexing problems its scientists faced was devising and agreeing upon tests to detect life. [infinitive]

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine

    Nicolas Andry, the pioneer of orthopedics, had a special interest in correcting deformities in children. . . . [gerund]

    --Linglei Xu, "Bone Talk," SciTech Magazine

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    Section 11.3.6.1

    Infinitives

    The infinitive is a nonfinite verb that consists of the infinitive marker to followed by the base form of the verb.

    When NASA first organized the Viking Lander missions to Mars, one of the most vexing problems its scientists faced was devising and agreeing upon tests to detect life.

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine

    The infinitive functions in the following ways:

    • To express the purpose of an action

      • In less than 50 years, early solar power pioneers developed an impressive array of innovative techniques for capturing solar radiation and using it to produce the steam that powered the machines of that era.

      --Charles Smith, "Revisiting Solar Power's Past," Technology Review (modified)

    • As the complement of certain verbs, including many verbs describing speech, thought, preferences, or beginnings as well as verbs of obligation (e.g., have to), ability (e.g., be able to), or causation (e.g., get to)

      • In 1968 John Conway, an Oxford professor, decided to test if cellular automata could form the basis of computers.

      --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine (modified)

    • As the complement of the verbs seem and appear

      • Along the fringes of the Everglades, fresh and salt water mix to produce a kind of primordial soup that at times seems to boil with spawning fish.

      --Norman Boucher, "Back To the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

    • As the complement of certain adjectives including many adjectives formed from past participles of verbs

      • Flowways and canals will prove just as effective in sustaining dynamic hydrology as the untouched plains of sawgrass and pond apple they are designed to replace.

      --Norman Boucher, "Back To the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

    • As the complement of adjectives or nouns modified by the adverbs too and enough

      A 30-mile-by-100 mile area called the Blake Ridge off the North Carolina coast holds enough gas to supply all the needs of the United States for 100 years.

      --David Graham, "Harvesting Natural Gas from the Ocean Floor," Technology Review

    • As the complement of the interrogative words how and whether

      • The difficulty lies in determining how to engineer those characteristics back into the system.

      --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review

    • As the subject of a sentence whose main verb is a form of be, especially if the infinitive expresses an intention or a purpose.

      • To predict waterflow reliably is necessary for large-scale agriculture and suburbs.

      --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

    Avoid splitting an infinitive by placing an intervening word between the infinitive marker to and the verb unless any other placement of the intervening word would sound awkward.

    Weak

    In the late 1940's von Neumann foreshadowed the discovery of DNA in stating that any organism had to most definitely have the instructions dictating its behavior and reproduction, along with a copy in some form of those same instructions passed on to descendants.

    Improved

    In the late 1940's von Neumann foreshadowed the discovery of DNA in stating that any organism most definitely had to have the instructions dictating its behavior and reproduction, along with a copy in some form of those same instructions passed on to descendants.

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine (modified)

    Weak

    One of the people willing rigorously to study cellular automata phenomena was Stephen Wolfram, creator of the now famous Mathematica program.

    Improved

    One of the people willing to rigorously study cellular automata phenomena was Stephen Wolfram, creator of the now famous Mathematica program.

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine

    You can emphasize that the action described by the infinitive occurred in the past or was completed by adding the auxiliary have after the infinitive marker to.

    The reaction appears to have finished already.

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    Section 11.3.6.2

    Gerunds

    A gerund is a nonfinite verb form used as a noun. It consists of the present participle of the verb and functions in the ways other nouns function:

    • As the object of a verb or a preposition

      • A variety of experiments were loaded onto the Viking spacecraft in the hopes of detecting the telltale signs of microbial life: growth, food consumption, and waste production.

      --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine (modified)

    • As the subject of a sentence

      • Giving machines the ability to replicate and mutate allowed for further complexity and would unleash the powerful and unpredictable forces of evolution.

      --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine

    Use the possessive case form for a noun or personal pronoun that modifies a gerund.

    Modern society's altering the hydrology of the Everglades has profoundly affected the ecology of the region.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back To the Everglades," Technology Review (modified)

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    Section 11.3.7

    Verb Forms

    Verbs can be said to have five forms in English: the base form, the present tense form (which may include the agreement ending -s), the past tense form, the present participle, and the past participle. Although the forms are predictable for most verbs in English, many common verbs have one or more unpredictable or irregular forms.

    Forms of the Verb Study

    Base form: study

    Present tense form: studies

    Past tense form: studied

    Present participle: studying

    Past participle: studied

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    Section 11.3.7.1

    Base Form

    The base form of the verb is identical to the dictionary entry; it does not bear any agreement, tense, or participle endings. The base form is used in the following circumstances:

    • After the infinitive marker to

      • We expected the substance to explode.

    • After a modal auxiliary

      • We knew the substance might explode.

    • In the subjunctive mood

      • It is desirable that the substance explode.

    • After verbs of seeing or hearing

      • We watched the substance explode.

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    Section 11.3.7.2

    Present Participle

    To form the present participle of a verb, add the ending -ing to the base form. The present participle form is used in the following circumstances:

    • After a form of the auxiliary be in the progressive

      • The yeast culture is growing rapidly.

    • In verbal clauses that are being used as nouns (gerunds)

      • We considered growing the culture in a larger dish.

    • As an active participial adjective

      • We placed the rapidly growing culture in the refrigerator.

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    Section 11.3.7.3

    Past Participle

    To form the past participle of a verb, add the ending -ed to the base form. (But note that many common verbs have irregular past participle forms.) The past participle is used in the following circumstances:

    • After the auxiliary have in the perfect tense

      • Has the gas chromatograph been fixed yet?

    • After a form of the auxiliary be in the passive voice

      • The gas chromatograph was fixed on Monday.

    • After the verbs have and get with a causative meaning

      • We had the gas chromatograph fixed last week.

    • As a passive participial adjective

      • The recently fixed gas chromatograph is broken again.

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    Section 11.3.7.4

    Irregular Verbs

    The following chart lists the past tense and the past participle form of common irregular verbs. All modal auxiliaries are irregular. See the chart in Section 11.3.5 for their forms.

    (Skip to: A C F H M S T W) 

    Base Form         Simple Past       Past Participle
arise             arose             arisen
awake             awoke             awoken/awaked
be                was/were          been
bear              bore              borne
beat              beat              beaten
become            became            become
begin             began             begun
bend              bent              bent
bet               bet               bet
bid               bade/bid          bidden/bid
bind              bound             bound
bite              bit               bitten
bleed             bled              bled
blow              blew              blown
break             broke             broken
breed             bred              bred
bring             brought           brought
broadcast         broadcast         broadcast
build             built             built
burst             burst             burst
buy               bought            bought
cast              cast              cast
catch             caught            caught
choose            chose             chosen
cling             clung             clung
come              came              come
cost              cost              cost
creep             crept             crept
cut               cut               cut
deal              dealt             dealt
dig               dug               dug
dive              dived/dove        dived
do                did               done
draw              drew              drawn
drink             drank             drunk
drive             drove             driven
eat               ate               eaten
fall              fell              fallen
feed              fed               fed
feel              felt              felt
fight             fought            fought
find              found             found
fit               fit               fit
flee              fled              fled
fling             flung             flung
fly               flew              flown
forbid            forbade           forbidden
forecast          forecast          forecast
forget            forgot            forgotten
forgive           forgave           forgiven
forsake           forsook           forsaken
freeze            froze             frozen
get               got               gotten
give              gave              given
go                went              gone
grind             ground            ground
grow              grew              grown
hang              hung              hung
have              had               had
hear              heard             heard
hide              hid               hidden
hit               hit               hit
hold              held              held
hurt              hurt              hurt
keep              kept              kept
know              knew              known
lay               laid              laid
lead              led               led
leave             left              left
lend              lent              lent
let               let               let
lie               lay               lain
light             lit/lighted       lit/lighted
lose              lost              lost
make              made              made
mean              meant             meant
meet              met               met
mislay            mislaid           mislaid
mistake           mistook           mistaken
pay               paid              paid
prove             proved            proved/proven
put               put               put
quit              quit              quit
read              read              read
rid               rid               rid
ride              rode              ridden
ring              rang              rung
rise              rose              risen
run               ran               run
say               said              said
see               saw               seen
seek              sought            sought
sell              sold              sold
send              sent              sent
set               set               set
shake             shook             shaken
shed              shed              shed
shine             shone/shined      shone/shined
shoot             shot              shot
show              showed            shown/showed
shrink            shrank/shrunk     shrunk
shut              shut              shut
sing              sang              sung
sink              sank              sunk
sit               sat               sat
slay              slew              slain
sleep             slept             slept
slide             slid              slid
slit              slit              slit
speak             spoke             spoken
speed             sped/speeded      sped/speeded
spend             spent             spent
spin              spun              spun
spit              spit/spat         spit/spat
split             split             split
spread            spread            spread
spring            sprang/sprung     sprung
stand             stood             stood
steal             stole             stolen
stick             stuck             stuck
sting             stung             stung
stink             stank/stunk       stunk
strike            struck            struck/stricken
string            strung            strung
strive            strove            striven
swear             swore             sworn
sweep             swept             swept
swim              swam              swum
swing             swung             swung
take              took              taken
teach             taught            taught
tear              tore              torn
tell              told              told
think             thought           thought
throw             threw             thrown
thrust            thrust            thrust
tread             trod              trodden/trod
understand        understood        understood
undertake         undertook         undertaken
upset             upset             upset
wake              woke/waked        woken/waked
wear              wore              worn
weave             wove              woven
weep              wept              wept
win               won               won
wind              wound             wound
withdraw          withdrew          withdrawn
wring             wrung             wrung
write             wrote             written

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    Section 11.3.8

    Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

    Verbs can be divided into two categories, transitive and intransitive, depending on whether or not they take an object. Transitive verbs are followed by direct objects; intransitive verbs are not.

    Transitive verbs: contain, verify, assess

    Intransitive verbs: sneeze, die, capitulate

    Passive voice is possible only with transitive verbs.

    Many verbs are transitive in some uses and intransitive in others. If you are not sure whether a verb you are using may be may be transitive and intransitive, consult a dictionary.

    Intransitive Usage

    The student guessed correctly.

    Transitive Usage

    The student guessed the answer correctly.

    Be aware of common transitive/intransitive verb pairs such as raise/rise in which the verbs sound similar but one requires an object and the other cannot take an object.

    Unacceptable

    In the Malthusian model of unrestrained growth, the linear growth function rises the population growth upward. [Rises is an intransitive verb and cannot take an object.]

    Acceptable

    In the Malthusian model of unrestrained growth, the linear growth function rises.

    Acceptable

    In the Malthusian model of unrestrained growth, the linear growth function raises the population growth.

    --James Gleick, Chaos

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    Section 11.4

    Adjectives

    Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. They usually precede the words they modify but they may follow them, separated from those words by a form of the verb be or a subsititute such as seems or feels.

    the hot water

    the water is hot

    the water feels hot

    Two important types of adjectives are determiners and participial adjectives.

    Adjectives can appear in the positive, comparative, or superlative degree.

    small [positive]

    smaller [comparative]

    smallest [superlative]

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    Section 11.4.1

    Determiners

    Determiners are special adjectives that identify the noun being described or that specify the quantity of the noun. They include demonstrative adjectives, possessive adjectives, and quantifiers, as well as articles.

    A noun phrase usually contains only one determiner, and that determiner precedes all other adjectives.

    Alain J. Martin, a computer scientist at the California Institute of Technology who built the first asynchronous microprocessor in 1989, says his tools, which Caltech plans to license, can mathematically prove that a design is correct before it is built, avoiding embarrassments such as the division bug in Intel's Pentium processor.

    --W. Wayt, "Turning Back the Clock," Scientific American (modified)

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    Section 11.4.1.1

    Demonstrative Adjectives

    Demonstrative adjectives are special adjectives or determiners used to identify or express the relative position of a noun in time or space. A demonstrative adjective comes before all other adjectives in the noun phrase. Some common demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, and those.

    The results of research done with high-altitude aircraft flights showed significant amounts of ozone being destroyed outside the main hole, suggesting that the area of ozone loss may be considerably greater than once thought. Furthermore, this same research revealed that ozone destruction begins earlier in the year than expected.

    --C. Donald Ahrens, Meteorology Today (modified)

    Use this/that with singular nouns and these/those with plural nouns.

    Unacceptable

    Although not everything is known about the reactions that take place among hydrocarbons and other gases, it is believed that this reactions disrupt the normal mechanism for ozone removal, and so the concentration of ozone is able to increase.

    Acceptable

    Although not everything is known about the reactions that take place among hydrocarbons and other gases, it is believed that these reactions disrupt the normal mechanism for ozone removal, and so the concentration of ozone is able to increase.

    --C. Donald Ahrens, Meteorology Today

    You can sometimes use demonstrative adjectives as demonstrative pronouns.

    These tools are delicate. [demonstrative adjective]

    These are delicate. [demonstrative pronoun]

    However, take care that you do not create broad pronoun reference.

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    Section 11.4.1.2

    Possessive Adjectives

    Possessive adjectives are special adjectives or determiners used to express possession of a noun; they precede all other elements in a noun phrase. If you use possessive adjectives, you do not need articles.

    My mass spectrometer has a vacuum leak. [Compare The mass spectrometer has a vacuum leak.]

    Choose a possessive adjective that agrees in person, number, and gender with the possessor noun, not the noun being possessed.

    Unacceptable

    Dorothy Mary Crowfoot, winner of the 1964 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, was born on May 12, 1910 in Cairo, Egypt. His father had studied ancient history at Oxford University. [The possessive adjective, his, should agree with the gender of the possessor, Dorothy Crowfoot (feminine), not the possessed noun, father (masculine).]

    Acceptable

    Dorothy Mary Crowfoot, winner of the 1964 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, was born on May 12, 1910 in Cairo, Egypt. Her father had studied ancient history at Oxford University.

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    Section 11.4.1.3

    Quantifiers

    Quantifiers are determiners used to express the quantity of the noun being described. Like possessive adjectives, quantifiers usually precede all other elements in a noun phrase. Some common quantifiers are most, much, any, no, some, and few.

    Most people have a hard time grasping that the inside of the Sun rotates six times faster than the outside of the Sun.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    Choose a quantifier that is appropriate for your noun. Some quantifiers can be used with all types of nouns, some can be used only with countable nouns, and others can be used only with uncountable nouns.

    Check your subject-verb agreement carefully when you use a quantifier. Some quantifiers have special rules for subject-verb agreement.

    In general, do not use articles before quantifiers.

    Unacceptable

    The all kangaroos cough when frightened.

    Acceptable

    All kangaroos cough when frightened.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    However, you can use articles before the quantifiers few and little. You can also use demonstrative adjectives before few and little. That is not the case with other quantifiers.

    A few carbon atoms have an atomic weight of 14. [A few such atoms exist.]

    Few carbon atoms have an atomic weight of 14. [Not many such atoms exist.]

    A little catalyst can greatly increase the rate of a reaction. [a small amount]

    Little evidence was found to support the hypothesis. [not much, if any]

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    Section 11.4.2

    Participial Adjectives

    A participial adjective is formed by adding to the base form of the verb either the present participial ending -ing or, unless the verb is irregular, the past participial ending -ed.

    See Active Participial Adjectives and Passive Participial Adjectives.

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    Section 11.4.2.1

    Active Participial Adjectives

    Active participial adjectives are formed from the present participles of verbs. They describe nouns that are actively causing or participating in an action.

    In quantum mechanics, a tunnelling alpha particle is one that can escape the nucleus during radioactive decay.

    --John Rigden, "J. Robert Oppenheimer: Before the War," Scientific American (modified)

    You can also use an active participial adjective in place of a relative clause when the noun would otherwise be the subject of a simple relative clause.

    When hybrids mate with pure gray wolves, the resulting offspring appear slightly more wolflike than their parents. [Alternatively: the offspring that result.]

    --Robert K. Wayne and John Gittleman, "The Problematic Red Wolf," Scientific American (modified)

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    Section 11.4.2.2

    Passive Participial Adjectives

    Passive participial adjectives are formed from the past participles of verbs. They describe nouns that are receiving the effects of an action.

    Astrophysicists of the early 20th century, not knowing about nuclear processes, computed that a sun powered by chemical burning or gravitational shrinking could shine only for a few million years.

    --Robert P. Kirscher, "The Earth's Elements," Scientific American

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    Section 11.4.3

    Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

    A comparative or superlative adjective is used to compare the degree of some quality of one item with the degree of the same quality in another item [comparative] or in multiple others [superlative]. Comparative adjectives, that is, indicate that an item has more or less of the quality, whereas superlative adjectives indicate that the item has the greatest or least amount of the quality.

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    Section 11.4.3.1

    Comparative

    The comparative usually is formed with an -er ending or the word more or less.

    We need to find a better stopper for this vial. [good changed to comparative form better with -er]

    We need to find a smaller stopper for this vial. [small changed to comparative form smaller with -er]

    We need to find a more tapered stopper for this vial. [comparative with more]

    We need to find a less tapered stopper for this vial. [comparative with less]

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    Section 11.4.3.2

    Superlative

    The superlative usually is formed with an -est ending or the word most or least.

    We used the best stopper we could find. [good changed to superlative form best with -est]

    We used the smallest stopper we could find. [small changed to superlative form smallest with -est]

    We used the most tapered stopper we could find. [superlative with most]

    We used the least tapered stopper we could find. [superlative with least]

    If you are comparing only two items, use the comparative form. If you are comparing more than two items, use the superlative form.

    This is the smaller of the two stoppers. [comparative]

    This is the smallest of the three stoppers. [superlative]

    If you use a comparative adjective, make sure that your comparison is complete by including the standard of comparison where it is relevant.

    This stopper is smaller than that one. [standard of comparison]

    If you are not sure how to form the comparative or superlative degree of a particular adjective, check the adjective in a dictionary.

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    Section 11.5

    Adverbs

    Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs; they also introduce clauses. There are several categories of adverbs, each with its own rules for adverb word order: conjunctive adverbs, attitude adverbs, sentence adverbs, time adverbs, manner adverbs, and quantity adverbs.

    Like adjectives, adverbs can appear in the positive, comparative, or superlative degree.

    rapidly [positive]

    more rapidly [comparative]

    most rapidly [superlative]

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    Section 11.5.1

    Attitude Adverbs

    Attitude adverbs express the writer's attitude toward the state or action described in the sentence. Attitude adverbs typically are placed before the subject of the sentence. Some common attitude adverbs are fortunately, luckily, obviously, unfortunately, and unluckily.

    Fortunately, nobody was hurt in the explosion.

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    Section 11.5.2

    Sentence Adverbs

    Sentence adverbs express the certainty or uncertainty of the state or action described in the sentence. Sentence adverbs typically are placed between the subject and the first verb of the sentence, or after the first auxiliary verb, if one is present. Some common sentence adverbs are certainly, possibly, and probably.

    Computers probably would have been developed even without government funding.

    Computers would probably have been developed even without government funding.

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    Section 11.5.3

    Time Adverbs

    Time adverbs express how frequently the state or action described in the sentence takes place, or how closely to the present time the action was completed. Time adverbs typically are placed after the first auxiliary verb. Some common time adverbs include: already, always, ever, finally, frequently, just, never, occasionally, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, and usually.

    By the year 2000, computers will already have been in use for over 50 years.

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    Section 11.5.4

    Manner Adverbs

    Manner adverbs modify the main verb of the sentence. They typically follow the direct object of the sentence or immediately precede the main verb. Some common manner adverbs are carefully, quickly, quietly, slowly, and well.

    The astronauts slowly and carefully guided the space shuttle to the landing dock on the space station.

    The astronauts guided the space shuttle slowly and carefully to the landing dock on the space station.

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    Section 11.5.5

    Quantity Adverbs

    Quantity adverbs modify the quantity or intensity of an adjective, a verb, or another adverb. Quantity adverbs typically are placed immediately before the words they modify. Some common quantity adverbs are almost, completely, especially, extremely, hardly, just, nearly, only, quite, really, relatively, and very.

    Astronomers have just recently begun to look at whether the arrangement of clusters and superclusters of galaxies might not itself have some shape or structure.

    --Andrew Fraknoi, "The Universe: An Introduction"

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    Section 11.5.6

    Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

    A comparative or superlative adverb is used to indicate the relative degree of some quality expressed by the word or phrase the adverb modifies. A comparative adverb indicates that an item has more or less of the quality than does another item; a superlative adverb indicates that an item has the quality to the greatest or least degree.

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    Section 11.5.6.1

    Comparative

    All adverbs ending in -ly and certain other adverbs, especially long ones, form the comparative by the addition of the word more or less. Some short or irregular adverbs, however, form the comparative by the addition of the ending -er.

    The experiment went better than expected. [well changed to comparative form better with ending -er]

    We got our results more quickly than we expected. [comparative with more]

    The solution reached equilibrium less rapidly than we thought it would. [comparative with less]

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    Section 11.5.6.2

    Superlative

    All adverbs ending in -ly and certain other adverbs, especially long ones, form the superlative by the addition of the word most or least. Some short or irregular adverbs, however, form the superlative by the addition of the ending -est.

    The disinfection system works best with a 3% hydrogen peroxide solution. [well changed to superlative form best with ending -est]

    The program is designed to work most efficiently in a 32-bit environment. [superlative with most]

    Most surprisingly, the experimental data matched our predictions perfectly. [superlative with most]

    If you are not sure how to form the comparative or superlative degree of a particular adverb, check the adverb in a dictionary.

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    Section 11.6

    Prepositions

    Prepositions show the relations between nouns or verbs and other words or phrases in the sentence; they often express locations in space or time. Some common prepositions are about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, as, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, regarding, since, through, throughout, till, toward, under, until, up, upon, with, within, and without.

    Astrophysicists of the early 20th century, not knowing about nuclear processes, computed that a sun powered by chemical burning or gravitational shrinking could shine only for a few million years.

    --"The Earth's Elements," Scientific American

    Be careful to choose the preposition that reflects your intended meaning.

    Some words or idioms specify exactly which preposition is preferred with the word or idiom. With these words or phrases, use the preposition that goes with the word, regardless of the usual meaning of the preposition.

    In general, do not capitalize prepositions used in titles. See Capitalization.

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    Section 11.7

    Conjunctions

    Conjunctions connect sentences, clauses, phrases, or words. There are several types of conjunctions, each associated with its own linking and punctuation pattern: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs.

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    Section 11.7.1

    Coordinating Conjunctions

    Coordinating conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses. The units being joined by a coordinating conjunction must be parallel in grammatical structure and importance. Some common coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, for, nor, so, and yet.

    Half the world's population of nearly six billion people prepare their food and heat their homes with coal and the traditional biomass fuels of dung, crop residues, wood and charcoal.

    --Daniel Kammen, "Cookstoves for the Developing World," Scientific American

    In rural areas of many developing countries, women and children may spend several hours a day collecting wood for cooking or making charcoal, tasks that contribute to deforestation and soil erosion.

    --Daniel Kammen, "Cookstoves for the Developing World," Scientific American

    If you use a coordinating conjunction to join two independent clauses, precede the coordinating conjunction with a comma. A comma is usually used before the coordinating conjunction that precedes the last item in a series of three or more items. For uses of the comma with coordinating conjunctions, see Coordinating Conjunctions Joining Independent Clauses and Elements in a Series.

    In the past, many writers and readers considered that starting a sentence with a coordinating conjunction was poor style; however, this structure is now widely accepted.

    Organic chemists have gained substantial command over the synthesis of small complex molecules. But the goal of constructing large well-defined molecules has been more elusive.

    --Donald A. Tomalia, "Dendrimer Molecules," Scientific American

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    Section 11.7.2

    Correlative Conjunctions

    Correlative conjunctions consist of two parts, both of which must be included in the sentence. Some common correlative conjunctions are both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but, and whether . . . or. Like coordinating conjunctions, these conjunctions may link words, phrases, or clauses. The units being joined by a correlative conjunction must be parallel in grammatical structure and importance.

    Marasmus is the condition that results when a child's diet lacks both total calories and protein.

    --"Metabolic and Deficiency Diseases," Compton's Encyclopedia

    If you use a correlative conjunction to join two independent clauses, separate the clauses with a comma before the second element of the conjunction.

    Either Jan will conclude the experiment by February, or she will ask for additional research funds.

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    Section 11.7.3

    Subordinating Conjunctions

    Subordinating conjunctions link phrases or clauses to other clauses. They are called subordinating conjunctions because they transform the clause they introduce into a dependent clause, a clause subordinate to the independent clause in grammatical structure and importance. Some common subordinating conjunctions are after, although, as, as if, as long as, because, before, despite, even if, even though, if, in order that, rather than, since, so that, that, though, unless, until, when, where, whereas, whether, and while.

    Even if tighter marketing restrictions and higher excise taxes prove successful in decreasing tobacco smoking in the U.S., the industry has a means to counteract loss of revenue: exportation.

    --Carl Bartecchi, Thomas MacKenzie, and Robert Shrier, "The Global Tobacco Epidemic," Scientific American

    If the subordinating conjunction and its clause precede the independent clause, use a comma to separate the dependant clause from the independent clause. For further discussion of commas with subordinate elements, see Introductory Elements

    Although dogged by a few safety problems, the lithium element has already found its way into some familiar batteries, including those powering portable computers.

    --Sasha Nemecek, "Bettering Batteries," Scientific American

    As a general rule, if the subordinating conjunction and associated clause follow the main clause, do not use a comma. An exception occurs when the subordinate clause expresses a contrast, as do clauses beginning with whereas and most clauses beginning with although.

    Cutting vehicle mass provides important leverage on efficiency because it exerts a ripple effect.

    --"Improving Automotive Efficiency," Scientific American

    Since clauses introduced by a subordinating conjunction are always dependent clauses, they cannot stand alone; they must be linked to independent clauses.

    Unacceptable

    Since the sun and Earth are embedded in the galaxy. It is difficult for us to obtain an overall view of the galaxy.

    Acceptable

    Since the sun and Earth are embedded in the galaxy, it is difficult for us to obtain an overall view of the galaxy.

    --"The Milky Way," Compton's Encyclopedia

    For the ordering of the main clause and subordinate clause and deciding which information belongs in which clause, see Ordering of Phrases and Clauses.

    The subordinating conjunction because must be followed by the preposition of when it introduces a noun phrase.

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    Section 11.7.4

    Conjunctive Adverbs

    Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs that function as conjunctions when they link two independent clauses. Some common conjunctive adverbs are accordingly, also, anyway, besides, certainly, consequently, finally, furthermore, hence, however, incidentally, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, still, subsequently, then, therefore, and thus.

    By virtue of their prevalence alone, it is clear that mood disorders do not necessarily breed genius; indeed, 1 percent of the general population suffer from manic-depression, also called bipolar disorder, and 5 percent from a major depression, or unipolar disorder, during their lifetime.

    --Kay R. Jamison, "Manic-Depressive Illness and Creativity," Scientific American

    Each clause linked by a conjunctive adverb remains independent and can stand alone; therefore, if the clauses are placed in a single sentence, they must be separated by a semicolon.

    Common positions for conjunctive adverbs in sentences are before the subject, between the subject and the first verb, and at the end of the sentence. Conjunctive adverbs at the beginning of a clause must be followed by a comma (and preceded by a semicolon if the clause is linked to the previous clause).

    The lithium ion battery lasts longer than the NiCad battery; therefore, one lithium ion battery may suffice.

    Conjunctive adverbs between the subject and the verb must be both preceded and followed by a comma.

    The lithium ion battery lasts longer than the NiCad batter; one lithium ion battery, therefore, may suffice.

    Conjunctive adverbs at the end of a clause must be preceded by a comma and followed by a period.

    The lithium ion battery lasts longer than the NiCad battery; one lithium ion battery may suffice, therefore.

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    Section 11.8

    Articles

    Articles may be divided into two types: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an). Articles are a type of determiner and indicate the specificity or nonspecificity of the noun or noun phrase they modify.

    a specific airflow velocity

    an electronic circuit

    the Greenhouse Effect

    Pay close attention to usage rules governing whether an article is necessary with a particular noun or noun phrase and, if so, whether the required article should be definite or indefinite.

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    Section 11.8.1

    Definite Articles

    The definite article the signals to the reader that the noun is specific, not arbitrary, and not new to the reader.

    The Greenhouse Effect is a theory in environmental science which warns of the warming of the globe due to an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. [Only one Greenhouse Effect, one globe, and one atmosphere are assumed to exist; the context of the globe serves to make the warming unique.]

    Use a definite article if you intend a singular noun to refer to an entire class of items. Using a definite article with a singular noun in this way is particularly common with species of animals, inventions, or musical instruments.

    The farm alligator is more dangerous than the wild alligator because the farm alligator does not fear humans.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News (modified)

    See Usage Rules for Articles for further information about how definite articles are used in sentences.

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    Section 11.8.2

    Indefinite Articles

    An indefinite article signals that the noun is nonspecific or that other examples of the noun exist (that the noun is not unique). Use an indefinite article (a or an) if a noun is new to the reader or is an arbitrary example of the class that the noun belongs to.

    An airplane's shadow is virtually the same size regardless of its altitude. [An signals that airplane is an arbitrary example, that more than one airplane exists.]

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    The Greenhouse Effect is a theory in environmental science which warns of the warming of the globe due to an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. [Other theories exist; the first time an increase is mentioned, it is new to the reader.]

    See Usage Rules for Articles for further information about how indefinite articles are used in sentences. Also see Choosing between a and an.

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    Section 11.8.2.1

    Choosing between a and an

    Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds. Notice that some words whose first letter is a consonant (for instance, hour) actually begin with a vowel sound, and other words whose first letter is a vowel (for instance, unit) actually begin with a consonant sound.

    Unacceptable

    a electron, a oxidant, a hour

    Acceptable

    an electron, an oxidant, an hour

    Unacceptable

    an chromatograph, an human gene, an unique solution

    Acceptable

    a chromatograph, a human gene, a unique solution

    Make your decision between a and an according to the first sound of the word that immediately follows a or an, regardless of the word's function.

    Unacceptable

    a electric circuit, an very powerful explosive

    Acceptable

    an electric circuit, a very powerful explosive

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    Section 11.8.3

    Usage Rules for Articles

    Every time you use a noun in English, you need to decide two things: (1) whether an is article necessary and (2) which article is appropriate. If English is your native language, these decisions will be automatic. Otherwise, however, you will need to consider what type of noun you are using (countable or uncountable) and what context you are using it in. Proper nouns, as well as determiners (such as demonstrative and possessive adjectives), have their own article usage rules.

    Keep in mind that idioms do not follow ordinary usage rules but include the presence or absence of an article as part of their form. For article usage in idioms, check a specialized dictionary.

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    Section 11.8.3.1

    Is an Article Necessary?

    Use an article or other determiner if you are referring to one or all of a noun. If you decide an article is necessary, you must then choose an appropriate article. Singular countable nouns always refer to a specific amount (one), so they always require an article (unless another determiner is present).

    Unacceptable

    Iridescent quality in many lipsticks is created by blend of fish scales from commercial fish-packing companies.

    Acceptable

    The iridescent quality in many lipsticks is created by a blend of fish scales from commercial fish-packing companies. [Quality and blend are both countable nouns, so in the singular, they must be preceded by an article.]

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News (modified)

    Plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns require an article if they refer to a specific group or subset of the noun. A specific group might be all of the noun in existence, a noun that is modified by a prepositional phrase or a relative clause, or even an unmodified noun that is understood as referring to a specific group or subset of the noun.

    Unacceptable

    Motion sickness occasionally suffered by two out of five astronauts has been labeled astronausea.

    Acceptable

    The motion sickness occasionally suffered by two out of five astronauts has been labeled astronausea. [The phrase occasionally suffered . . . identifies the specific subset of the uncountable noun motion sickness.]

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

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    Section 11.8.3.2

    Which Article Is Appropriate?

    Once you have decided that an article is necessary, you must choose between an indefinite article (a and an) the definite article (the). In general, you should use the definite article if the noun is unique or known to the reader and an indefinite article if the noun is one of a group or new to the reader.

    Use an indefinite article (a or an) with singular countable nouns to refer to an arbitrary member of a larger group or to introduce a member of the larger group for the first time. The indefinite article always implies that other examples of the noun exist.

    Unacceptable

    Piece of string one light-year long would wrap around the equator of the Earth 236 million times. [Piece is singular and countable, so an article (definite or indefinite) must be used.]

    Unacceptable

    The piece of string one light-year long would wrap around the equator of the Earth 236 million times. [The definite article implies that only one piece of string exists or that the author already mentioned this particular piece of string before.]

    Acceptable

    A piece of string one light-year long would wrap around the equator of the Earth 236 million times. [The indefinite article implies that the author is introducing this particular piece of string, yet other pieces of string exist.]

    --Andrew Fraknoi, "The Universe: An Introduction"

    Never use an indefinite article with a plural countable noun or with an uncountable noun.

    Unacceptable

    Unlike a stars, a planets do not shine under their own power, but simply reflect the light of their star.

    Acceptable

    Unlike stars, planets do not shine under their own power, but simply reflect the light of their star.

    --Andrew Fraknoi, "The Universe: An Introduction"

    Use the definite article (the) with singular countable nouns to suggest that the noun is unique (its group consists of only one member) or to refer to a noun that has been previously introduced. The definite article used with a singular countable noun usually implies that only one example of the noun exists or is relevant to the situation.

    The Earth is one of nine planets circling the star we call the Sun.

    --Andrew Fraknoi, "The Universe: An Introduction"

    You can also use the definite article with a singular countable noun to refer to the entire class that the noun belongs to. This is often done with species of animals, inventions, or musical instruments:

    The honey possum of Australia is the only mammal that lives exclusively on nectar.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    Use the definite article with plural countable nouns or uncountable nouns to refer to the entire category in existence or to a specific subset of the category as defined by the context.

    When particles of matter meet with and annihilate their corresponding particles of antimatter, the energy produced comes out purely in the form of gamma rays. [The author used the definite article with the uncountable noun energy to indicate that he was referring to only the subset of energy that is produced when these particles collide.]

    --Harding E. Smith, "Quasars and Active Galaxies"

    Do not use the definite article when referring to uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns in a general sense.

    Unacceptable

    The discovery of the pulsars and the efficient way in which the pulsars supply energy to the supernova remnants like the Crab Nebula has led to the suggestion that the rapidly rotating, magnetized, massive objects might also power the quasars.

    Acceptable

    The discovery of pulsars and the efficient way in which pulsars supply energy to supernova remnants like the Crab Nebula has led to the suggestion that rapidly rotating, magnetized, massive objects might also power quasars.

    --Harding E. Smith, "Quasars and Active Galaxies"

    Use the definite article whenever you modify a noun with a superlative adjective (using most or least with the modifier or adding -est to it), with the word same, or with an ordinal number (first, fourth).

    Unacceptable

    Most common cause of coughing is stress.

    Acceptable

    The most common cause of coughing is stress.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    Unacceptable

    First steam locomotive in regular service was in England in 1814.

    Acceptable

    The first steam locomotive in regular service was in England in 1814.

    --"Take It or Leave It," Valley Comic News

    Unacceptable

    At same temperature and at same level, moist air weighs less than dry air.

    Unacceptable

    At a same temperature and at a same level, moist air weighs less than dry air.

    Acceptable

    At the same temperature and at the same level, moist air weighs less than dry air.

    --C. Donald Ahrens, Meteorology Today

    Always use the definite article before the names of groups of years, such as decades:

    Unacceptable

    When fax machines were invented in 1960s, it took an average of 6 minutes to send a one-page document.

    Acceptable

    When fax machines were invented in the 1960s, it took an average of 6 minutes to send a one-page document.

    --Les Krantz, America by the Numbers

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    Section 11.8.3.3

    Demonstrative and Possessive Adjectives--Article Rules

    Demonstrative and possessive adjectives are determiners. Since a noun phrase takes only one determiner, do not use an article if you modify the noun with a demonstrative adjective or a possessive adjective.

    Demonstrative adjectives

    Unacceptable

    The purpose of the this thesis . . .

    Unacceptable

    The purpose of this the thesis . . .

    Acceptable

    The purpose of this thesis . . .

    Possessive adjectives

    Unacceptable

    The purpose of the my thesis . . .

    Unacceptable

    The purpose of my the thesis . . .

    Acceptable

    The purpose of my thesis . . .

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    Section 11.8.3.4

    Articles and Proper Nouns

    In general, do not use an article with a proper noun unless the noun contains a prepositional phrase.

    Unacceptable

    the MIT, the America

    Acceptable

    MIT, America

    Unacceptable

    United States of America

    Acceptable

    the United States of America

    However, there are special cases to take note of.

    • You should use the definite article with a proper noun that includes or refers to geographical terms such as river, ocean, bridge, region, or building:

      • Unacceptable

      Charles River, Atlantic Ocean, Harvard Bridge, Northeast, Computer Museum

      Acceptable

      the Charles River, the Atlantic Ocean, the Harvard Bridge, the Northeast, the Computer Museum

    • You should use the definite article with plural lakes, mountains, and islands:

      • Unacceptable

      Galapagos Islands, Great Lakes, Rocky Mountains

      Acceptable

      the Galapagos Islands, the Great Lakes, the Rocky Mountains

      Unacceptable

      the Long Island, the Lake Superior, the Mount Washington

      Acceptable

      Long Island, Lake Superior, Mount Washington

    • If you are unsure whether you should use an article with a particular proper noun, check the noun in a specialized dictionary.

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    Section 12.1

    Subjects

    The subject of a sentence is the noun or noun phrase that performs the action within the sentence. In passive sentences, the subject is the recipient of the action.

    Some researchers assert that clockless processors will soon become cheaper, more reliable, more energy efficient and easier to design than chips based on today's prevailing technology.

    --W. Wayt, "Turning Back the Clock," Scientific American (modified)

    Your verb must agree with your subject in number and person.

    Every sentence must have a subject. If there is no noun subject, you must use an expletive, it or there, in the subject position.

    It is possible to calculate how much matter the galaxy must have in order to hold a star in its orbit by the force of gravity.

    --"The Milky Way," Compton's Encyclopedia

    Not all the galaxy's stars are confined to the galactic plane. There are a few stars that occur far above or below the disk.

    --"Astronomy," Compton's Encyclopedia

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    Section 12.2

    Predicates

    The predicate of a sentence expresses the state of the subject or the action that the subject performs. The predicate includes the verb or verb phrase and any objects (direct or indirect) or modifiers that follow it. Every sentence must have a predicate.

    Makers of beer and soft-drink containers in the U.S. produce 300 million aluminum beverage cans a day.

    --William Hostold and John Duncan, "The Aluminum Beverage Can," Scientific American

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    Section 12.3

    Objects

    The object of a verb is the noun, pronoun or other noun substitute that receives the results of the action referred to by the verb. Objects of verbs may be either direct objects or indirect objects. Prepositions also have objects.

    Verbs that take direct objects are termed transitive verbs. In general, do not allow any words to separate the verb and its direct object. Indirect objects, however, are often an exception.

    Weak

    The Everglades Coalition promoted tirelessly an effort to save the area's unique biological capital.

    Improved

    The Everglades Coalition tirelessly promoted an effort to save the area's unique biological capital.

    --Norman Boucher, "Back to the Everglades," Technology Review

    You can change a sentence from active voice to passive voice by making the object of the active verb (direct object or indirect object) the subject of the passive verb and adding a form of the passive auxiliary be to the verb phrase.

    Active

    J. Robert Oppenheimer gave the first comprehensive description of a neutron star in 1939, shortly before he began working on the first atomic bomb.

    Passive

    The first comprehensive description of a neutron star was given by J. Robert Oppenheimer in 1939, shortly before he began working on the first atomic bomb.

    --William J. Kaufmann, "The Black Hole"

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    Section 12.3.1

    Direct Objects

    The direct object is the noun, pronoun, or other noun substitute in a sentence that receives the action of the verb; it is the noun or noun phrase that is acted upon.

    Tomsk-7, whose existence was classified until about 1990, is thought to have poured and pumped about a billion curies of high-level waste, or 20 Chernobyls' worth, into lakes in the region and into underground formations.

    --"Lethal Legacy," Scientific American

    All sentences with transitive verbs must include a direct object.

    In most sentences, the direct object must immediately follow the verb.

    Wash the test tubes. [Direct object, the test tubes, immediately follows the verb.]

    However, the direct object may sometimes be separated from the verb by an indirect object.

    Give me the test tubes. [Indirect object, me, comes between verb and direct object.]

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    Section 12.3.2

    Indirect Objects

    The indirect object tells to whom or what the action of the verb is directed or for whom or what the action is performed.

    Every year, the university gives several outstanding students full scholarships.

    Indirect objects of verbs can instead be made objects of prepositions.

    Every year, the university gives full scholarships to several outstanding students.

    Some transitive verbs require the expression of indirect objects in the sentence, whereas other verbs allow the presence of indirect objects but do not require them.

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    Section 12.3.3

    Objects of Prepositions

    A noun or noun phrase that follows a preposition is termed the object of the preposition.

    Viking obtained no conclusive data for or against life on Mars--an important reason for sending new probes to the enigmatic red planet in the near future.

    --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine

    Always use the objective case form of pronouns that are objects of prepositions, even when the pronoun follows a coordinating conjunction such as and.

    Unacceptable

    Just between you and I, I think this proposal needs some more work.

    Acceptable

    Just between you and me, I think this proposal needs some more work.

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    Section 12.4

    Modifiers

    Modifiers change the interpretation or meaning of the words or phrases they are associated with. Some examples of modifiers are adjectives, adverbs, adjective clauses (including relative clauses and appositive phrases), and adverbial clauses. Modifiers are generally optional elements of sentences.

    Every elephant has six sets of four teeth that grow forward as the previous assemblage is worn down; when the series runs out, often after more than 50 years of grazing, the animal can no longer forage and dies.

    --"Profile: Cynthia Moss," Scientific American

    When you use a modifier, place it as close as possible to the word or phrase you intend it to modify. See Misplaced Modifiers.

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    Section 12.4.1

    Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers and Clauses

    Modifiers and clauses that follow the words or phrases they modify are either restrictive or nonrestrictive. Restrictive modifiers and clauses are essential to the meaning of the sentence; without them, the meaning would be different. Nonrestrictive modifiers supply additional information; without them, although there would be less information, the basic meaning would be the same.

    Restrictive

    Not all the galaxy's stars are confined to the galactic plane. There are a few stars that occur far above or below the disk.

    --"Astronomy," Compton's Encyclopedia

    Nonrestrictive

    S. C. Johnson Corporation, which makes Johnson Wax and Raid, the antiroach product, breeds 80,000 roaches a week and plays host to up to a million roaches at any one time.

    --"Roach Wars," Scientific American

    The distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers is very important for punctuation: only nonrestrictive modifiers are separated by commas from the noun phrases they modify. See Nonrestrictive Modifiers.

    The distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers is also important when choosing between the relative pronouns that and which: in American English, generally use that with restrictive relative clauses; use which with nonrestrictive relative clauses.

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    Section 12.5

    Phrases

    A phrase is a group of words that work together to express a unified meaning but that lack a subject, a predicate, or both. Each phrase contains one central element whose meaning may be built upon or modified by the other elements in the phrase. The central element determines the type of phrase: nouns are used to build noun phrases, verbs are used to build verb phrases, adjectives are used to build adjective phrases, and so on.

    A noun phrase consists of the central noun or pronoun and all its modifiers, including determiners, adjectives, and adjective clauses.

    Half of the world's population of nearly six billion people prepare their food and heat their homes with coal and the traditional biomass fuels of dung, crop residues, wood and charcoal. [The phrase in bold type is the noun phrase.]

    --Daniel Kammen, "Cookstoves for the Developing World," Scientific American (modified)

    A verb phrase consists of the central verb, any auxiliary verbs, any modifiers of the verb, and any direct objects or indirect objects.

    The Large Hadron Collider at CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics near Geneva, will probably be built in the first few years of the 21st century. [The phrase in bold type is the verb phrase.]

    --"Low-Energy Ways to Observe High-Energy Phenomena," Scientific American

    An adjective phrase consists of the central adjective and any modifiers, including other adjectives or adverbs.

    Beverage cans have emerged as the most important market for aluminum.

    --William Hostold and John Duncan, "The Aluminum Beverage Can," Scientific American (modified)

    A prepositional phrase consists of the preposition and the noun phrase that follows.

    Astrophysicists of the early 20th century, not knowing about nuclear processes, computed that a sun powered by chemical burning or gravitational shrinking could shine only for a few million years.

    --"The Earth's Elements," Scientific American

    Because phrases are used to express unified meanings, they should not be carelessly split or separated by other phrases or parts of other phrases.

    See also Appositive Phrases and Participial Phrases.

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    Section 12.5.1

    Appositive Phrases

    An appositive phrase is a type of noun phrase that follows the noun or pronoun it modifies and amplifies or restricts its meaning.

    Our department head, a careful reader and outspoken critic, will review the memo before it is circulated. [The italicized phrase is an appositive.]

    Appositive phrases are similar to relative clauses; to avoid wordiness, relative clauses can often be reduced to appositive phrases.

    As with adjective phrases, punctuation with appositive phrases is determined by whether the phrases are restrictive or nonrestrictive.

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    Section 12.5.2

    Participial Phrases

    A participial phrase can modify a subject, an entire predicate, a direct or indirect object, or an entire sentence.

    Yet people trying to protect their data and transmissions apply less caution than the goats do: they attempt to distinguish between friend and foe using a mere sequence of symbols. [The first participial phrase modifies the subject; the second participial phrase modifies the predicate.]

    The procedure then appends a signature consisting of the distorted stamp and the solution to the equation. [modifies direct object]

    The motion of the damping tubes shears the viscous fluid, dissipating the vibration energy of the structure. [modifies whole sentence]

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    Section 12.6

    Clauses

    A clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate. There are two types of clauses, independent clauses and dependent clauses.

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    Section 12.6.1

    Independent Clauses

    Independent clauses can stand alone as sentences. To be independent, a clause must contain a verb and a subject and not begin with a subordinating word or phrase.

    Some clauses contain a verb and a subject but begin with a subordinating word or phrase (such as because or while) that expresses a close connection to another clause. Such subordinating elements convert clauses into dependent clauses, which cannot stand alone as sentences.

    A sentence must contain at least one independent clause; it may contain one or more dependent clauses. The independent clause in the sentence is called the main clause. See also Sentence Types.

    Although the pace of technological innovation has been impressively brisk, whether the materials will make an impact on commerce remains unclear. [The clause in italics is the independent clause.]

    --"Trends in Materials Science," Scientific American

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    Section 12.6.1.1

    The Main Clause

    Like all independent clauses, the main clause must contain a tensed verb and a subject. In complex sentences, the independent clause is the main clause. Main clauses do not have a fixed place in the order of complex sentences--they may begin the sentence, come in the middle, or end the sentence.

    Since the sun and Earth are embedded in the galaxy, it is difficult for us to obtain an overall view of the galaxy.

    --"The Milky Way," Compton's Encyclopedia

    The main clause should contain the most important information in the sentence.

    For more on main clauses and ordering, see Placement of Phrases and Clauses.

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    Section 12.6.2

    Dependent Clauses

    A dependent clause contains a subject and a predicate, but because it is introduced by a subordinating word it does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must always be accompanied by at least one independent clause.

    There are three kinds of dependent clauses: noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses.

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    Section 12.6.2.1

    Noun Clauses

    Noun clauses are dependent clauses that act as nouns. A noun clause may be used as the subject, direct object, indirect object, or complement in a sentence. The word that can also be used to convert whole clauses into forms that can be used as the subjects or objects of sentences.

    Studies in emergency rooms in Wilmington, Del., and Atlanta, have found that sensitization to cockroaches is an important risk factor for asthma attacks.

    --"Roach Wars," Scientific American

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    Section 12.6.2.2

    Adjective Clauses

    Adjective clauses are dependent clauses used to modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective clause usually immediately follows the noun or pronoun it modifies (see Misplaced Modifiers). A common type of adjective clause is the relative clause. As with other modifiers, punctuation with adjective clauses is determined by whether the clauses are restrictive or nonrestrictive.

    A relative clause is an adjective clause introduced by a relative pronoun, which joins the clause to some word in the main clause. Relative clauses are useful linking devices, since they allow two pieces of information about a noun or pronoun (the information in the main clause and the information in the relative clause) to be conveyed within a single sentence, without repetition of the noun or pronoun.

    The development of transistors was made public in 1948 by demonstrating radio and television sets whose vacuum tubes had been replaced by transistors.

    You can turn a sentence into a relative clause by changing a noun or phrase in the sentence into a relative pronoun and reordering the clause, if necessary, so that the relative pronoun becomes the first word in the clause.

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    Section 12.6.2.3

    Adverbial Clauses

    Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses used to modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or entire phrases or clauses. They are introduced by subordinating conjunctions. As introductory elements, they may begin a sentence; they may also be placed in the middle or at the end of a sentence.

    In September 1993 the U.S. auto industry and the Clinton administration announced a historic partnership to develop vehicles having three times the fuel economy of today's fleet while they provide the same comfort, safety and performance.

    --"Improving Automotive Efficiency," Scientific American(modified)

    Never use a future tense marker (will or going to) in an adverbial clause.

    Unacceptable

    If observations will tell us that the density of the universe is considerably different from the critical density, which corresponds to a flat universe, inflationary cosmology will face a real challenge.

    Acceptable

    If observations tell us that the density of the universe is considerably different from the critical density, which corresponds to a flat universe, inflationary cosmology will face a real challenge.

    --"The Self-Reproducing Inflationary Universe," Scientific American

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    Section 13.1

    Sentence Types Classified by Structure

    Use a variety of sentence types to make your writing interesting and effective. Sentences can be simple, compound, or complex.

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    Section 13.1.1

    Simple Sentences

    A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause.

    Surgery made critical advances in the 19th century.

    --Linglei Xu, "Bone Talk," SciTech Magazine (modified)

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    Section 13.1.2

    Compound Sentences

    A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses. The independent clauses are joined in one of the following ways to indicate that they form one sentence.

    • With a comma and a coordinating conjunction:

      • Organic chemists have gained substantial command over the synthesis of small complex molecules, but the goal of constructing large well-defined molecules has been more elusive.

      --"Dendrimer Molecules," Scientific American (modified)

    • With a comma and a correlative conjunction:

      • In John Conway's famous game of "Life", there is a finite grid filled with cells. Either each cell is alive, or it is dead.

      --Kai Wu, "Artificial Life," SciTech Magazine (modified)

    • With a semicolon:

      • In 1931 Oppenheimer attempted to find an equation for the photon that would be an analogue to Dirac's equation for the electron; he failed in this effort.

    • With a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb:

      • By virtue of their prevalence alone, it is clear that mood disorders do not necessarily breed genius; indeed, 1 percent of the general population suffer from manic-depression and 5 percent from a major depression during their lifetime.

      --"Manic-Depressive Illness and Creativity," Scientific American (modified)

    Do not attempt to form a compound sentence by joining the independent clauses with just a comma. Such a structure is called a comma splice.

    The independent clauses that make up the compound sentence should be at least approximately equal in importance. If one clause is clearly less important than the other(s), make the less important clause a dependent clause by introducing it with a subordinating conjunction. The resulting sentence will then be complex rather than compound.

    Weak

    Jupiter has an enormous size and gravity [background] and the Galileo probe steadily gained velocity as it approached the planet [focus].

    Improved

    Because Jupiter has an enormous size and gravity [background], the Galileo probe steadily gained velocity as it approached the planet [focus].

    --"Halo Nuclei," Scientific American (modified)

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    Section 13.1.3

    Complex Sentences

    A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

    Because Jupiter has an enormous size and gravity [dependent], the Galileo probe steadily gained velocity as it approached the planet [independent].

    --"Halo Nuclei," Scientific American

    The most important information in a complex sentence should be expressed in the independent clause. See Important Information in the Main Clause.

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    Section 13.2

    Sentence Types Classified by Purpose

    Classified by purpose, there are three basic sentence types in technical writing: declarative, interrogative, and imperative. Each is used for a particular purpose and has an associated word order.

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    Section 13.2.1

    Declarative Sentences

    Declarative sentences make statements and present information. Use ordinary word order in declarative sentences; that is, place the subject before the verb.

    Makers of beer and soft-drink containers in the U.S. produce 300 million aluminum beverage cans a day, 100 billion of them every year.

    --William Hostold and John Duncan, "The Aluminum Beverage Can," Scientific American

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    Section 13.2.2

    Interrogative Sentences

    Interrogative sentences ask questions. They may ask for information or for confirmation or denial of a statement. They typically begin with a question word such as what, who, or how, or an auxiliary verb such as do, can or would.

    What was the universe like before it was expanding?

    --"The Evolution of Science," Scientific American

    Does some fine madness plague great artists?

    --"Manic-Depressive Illness and Creativity," Scientific American

    Be careful to distinguish between direct and indirect questions. Direct questions normally use inverted word order (verb before subject) and end with a question mark. The two preceding sentences from Scientific American are examples. Indirect questions normally do not use inverted word order and do not end with a question mark.

    Unacceptable

    Modern telescopes on the ground and in space detect the light from galaxies billions of light-years away, showing us what did the universe look like when it was young?

    Acceptable

    Modern telescopes on the ground and in space detect the light from galaxies billions of light-years away, showing us what the universe looked like when it was young.

    --"The Evolution of the Universe," Scientific American

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    Section 13.2.3

    Imperative Sentences

    Imperative sentences request or demand that action be performed. The subject of an imperative sentence is seldom expressed. If the subject is not expressed, it is the word you understood. Verbs in imperative main clauses are in the imperative mood.

    Proceed with caution!

    Purge the cache before continuing.

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    Section 13.3

    Word Order

    Each part of a clause--the subject, the verb, the direct object and indirect objects, if any, and any adverbs--must be ordered appropriately in the clause. Most clauses use ordinary word order, but inverted word order (verb before subject) is called for occasionally. Many sentence elements--for example adjectives--have their own principles for ordering. If important in scientific and technical writing, these principles are discussed in the sections on the various elements.

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    Section 13.3.1

    Ordinary Word Order

    Ordinary word order places the subject first, followed by the verb, then the indirect and direct objects, if present.

    In rural areas of many developing countries, women and children may spend several hours a day collecting wood for cooking or making charcoal, tasks that contribute to deforestation and soil erosion.

    --Daniel Kammen, "Cookstoves for the Developing World," Scientific American

    Use ordinary word order in declarative sentences and in indirect questions.

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    Section 13.3.2

    Inverted Word Order

    Certain sentence types require inverted word order, in which a verb is placed before the subject. These types include interrogative sentences, conditional clauses without if, and declarative sentences that begin with negative or restrictive words such as never, rarely, scarcely, hardly ever, and not only.

    Do you understand Finnish? [interrogative]

    Were she available, we would surely invite her. [conditional]

    Not only is the standard American aluminum can light in weight and rugged but it is also about the same height and diameter as the traditional drinking tumbler. [beginning with negative, not only]

    --William Hostold and John Duncan, "The Aluminum Beverage Can," Scientific American

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    Section 13.4

    Placement of Phrases and Clauses

    There are often several possible ways to order the phrases or clauses within a sentence, especially a complex sentence. When choosing where to place the phrases and clauses within a sentence, keep in mind how new the information is to the context and which piece of information in the sentence is the most important.

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    Section 13.4.1

    Old Information before New

    A good strategy to follow when ordering phrases and clauses within a sentence is to place the most familiar information at the beginning of the sentence and the newest information at the end. Thus, information in the sentence will move from old to new, the old serving as a platform to support the new.

    Weak

    Anabolic steroids were used to rebuild the body weight of concentration camp survivors [new] after they were developed in the 1930s and gained recognition after World War II [old].

    Improved

    Anabolic steriods were developed in the 1930s but gained recognition only after World War II [old], when they were used to rebuild the body weight of concentration camp survivors [new].

    --"Steroids," Compton's Encyclopedia

    Sometimes the old information is in a main clause, and sometimes it is in a dependent clause. (For how to decide whether to put information in a main clause or in a dependent clause, see Important Information in Main Clause.) In either case, put the clause containing the old information first.

    If you decide to begin the sentence with a dependent clause, be sure to use the comma appropriately.

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    Section 13.4.2

    Important Information in the Main Clause

    When writing a sentence, you need to decide whether the information you are including should be expressed in a main clause or in a dependent clause. Here are some guidelines to help you.

    • Put the most important information of the sentence, the information that the sentence is about, into the main clause.

    • Put information that is less important, information that is included to provide background or tie together the ideas in a paragraph, into a dependent clause:

      • Weak

      Jupiter has an enormous size and gravity [background], and so the Galileo probe steadily gained velocity as it approached the planet [main point].

      Improved

      Because Jupiter has an enormous size and gravity [background], the Galileo probe steadily gained velocity as it approached the planet [main point].

      --"Halo Nuclei," Scientific American (modified)

    • Once you have decided which clauses to put the information in, remember that a sentence may begin with either a main clause or a dependent clause. For how to order the main and dependent clauses, see Old before New.

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    Usage Glossary

    To check a particular usage problem, click on the letter of the word or phrase in question. If the word or phrase is not listed, check a dictionary.

    A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    ESL Usage Glossary

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    Section 15.

    Writer's Resources

    Any list of resources for writers, will, of course, be incomplete. This listing, however, includes references to some useful resources for scientific and technical communication.

    Style Guides

    Dictionaries

    Grammar and Usage

    General Guides to Effective Style

    Guides to Scientific Writing

    Guides for Effective Graphs and Text Formats

    Information on Specific Topics

    Useful Tables

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    Section 15.1.1

    General

    American National Standards Institute. American National Standard for Bibliographic References. New York: American National Standards Institute, 1977.

    American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1994.

    Widely used reference for citation styles and document format. The fourth edition differs significantly from previous editions.

    Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.

    Standard guide to style, document preparation and format, and citation styles. Includes detailed descriptions of three documentation styles: the traditional note format, and two name-year systems, one primarily for the humanities, the other for the social sciences and technical disciplines.

    Achtert, Walter S., and Joseph Gibaldi. The MLA Style Manual. New York: Modern Language Association, 1985.

    The comprehensive version of the MLA handbook (below), but not as recently revised.

    Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995.

    The standard guide to writing about language and literature.

    Sabin, W. A. The Gregg Reference Manual. 8th ed. Lake Forest, Ill.: Glencoe, 1995.

    A useful general guide that emphasizes specific business styles and formats.

    Skillin, Marjorie E., and Robert M. Gay. Words Into Type. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1974.

    A classic general guide to preparing manuscripts for publication.

    Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 6th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

    A manual for students that employs a slightly modified version of the Chicago Manual of Style's note citation system.

    United States Government Printing Office. United States Government Printing Office Style Manual. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1985.

    The guide for the required style and format for most U.S. Government publications and for many government grant applications and contract proposals.

    Xerox Publishing Standards: A Manual of Style and Design. New York: Watson-Guptil Publications, 1988.

    A widely imitated corporate publishing guide that emphasizes layout and design.

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    Section 15.1.2.1

    Astronomy and Physics

    American Institute of Physics. AIP Style Manual. 4th ed. New York: American Institute of Physics, 1990.

    Wilkins, George A. The IAU Style Manual: The Preparation of Astronomical Papers and Reports. Paris: International Astronomical Union, 1990.

    Waldron, Anne and Peggy Judd. Physical Review Style and Notation Guide. Woodbury, N.Y.: American Physical Society, 1983.

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    Section 15.1.2.2

    Biology and Medicine

    American Medical Association. American Medical Association Manual of Style. 8th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1989.

    American Society for Microbiology. ASM Style Manual for Journals and Books. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology, 1991.

    Council of Biology Editors. Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers. 6th ed. Chicago: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

    National Library of Medicine. National Library of Medicine Recommended Formats for Bibliographic Citation. Bethesda, Md.: National Library of Medicine, 1991.

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    Section 15.1.2.3

    Chemistry

    Dodd, J. S. The ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1985.

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    Section 15.1.2.4

    Electrical Engineering

    Information for IEEE Transactions, Journal, and Letters Authors. Piscataway, N.J.: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1996.

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    Section 15.1.2.5

    Geology and Meteorology

    American Meteorological Society. Author's Guide to the Journals of the American Meteorological Society. Boston: American Meteorological Society, 1993.

    Hansen, W. R. Suggestions to Authors of the Reports of the United States Geological Survey. Washington, D.C.: United States Government printing Office, 1990.

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    Section 15.1.2.6

    Mathematics

    American Mathematical Society, A Manual for Authors of Mathematical Papers. Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, 1990.

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    Section 15.1.3

    Electronic Sources

    Emory University Health Sciences Center Library. "A Field Guide to Source On, About, and On the Internet." URL http://www.cc.emory.edu/WHSCL/citation.formats.html

    Harnack, Andrew, and Gene Kleppinger. "Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic Sources on the Internet." On-Line Serial. Kairos 1, no. 2 (1996). URL http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2/

    Modification of MLA format with useful style guide.

    Land, T. Web Extension to American Psychological Association Style (WEAPAS). 31 WWW Document. (Rev. 1.4), 25 November 1996. URL http://www.beadsland.com/weapas/

    A useful adaptation of APA documentation style for most online sources of information.

    Li, Xia, and Nancy B. Crane. Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information. Medford, N.J.: Information Today, 1996. URL http://www.uvm.edu/~ncrane/estyles/

    Walker, Janice R. "MLA-Style Citations of Electronic Sources." WWW Document Ver. 1.0. January 1996. URL http://www.cas.usf.edu/english/walker/mla.html

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    Section 15.2.1

    Desk Dictionaries

    The Random House College Dictionary. Rev. ed. New York: Random House, 1991.

    The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 3rd ed. Boston, 1992.

    Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 10th ed. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1993.

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    Section 15.2.2

    Unabridged Dictionaries

    Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles. 2nd ed. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1991. The standard and comprehensive historical dictionary of the English language.

    Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1981.

    A comprehensive dictionary emphasizing American English.

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    Section 15.2.3

    ESL Dictionaries

    Longman Dictionary of American English. 2nd ed. White Plains, N.Y.: Longman, 1997.

    Long, T. H., Ed. Longman Dictionary of English Idioms. Rev. ed. Harlow, England: Longman, 1984.

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    Section 15.2.4

    Technical Dictionaries

    Jeffrey, C. Biological Nomenclature. 3rd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

    Walker, J. M., and M. E. Cox. The Language of Biotechnology: A Dictionary of Terms. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1933.

    McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993.

    Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Edited by C. Morris. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press, 1990.

    Singleton, Paul, and Diana Sainsbury. Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 1993.

    Stenesh, J. Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 2nd ed. New York: J. Wiley, 1989.

    Walker, P. M. Cambridge Dictionary of Science and Technology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

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    Section 15.3

    Grammar and Usage

    Merriam Webster's Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1989.

    Cofer, Charles N., et al. "Guideline for Nonsexist Language in APA Journals." American Psychologist 32 (1977): 486-94.

    Cook, Claire Kehrwald. Line by Line: How to Edit Your Own Writing. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1985.

    Miller, Casey, and Kate Swift. The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing. New York: Lippincott, 1980.

    Wilson, K. G. The Columbia Guide to Standard American English. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.

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    Section 15.4

    General Guides to Effective Style

    Gowers, Ernest. The Complete Plain Words. 2nd ed. Edited by Bruce Fraser. Baltimore: Penguin, 1975. A classic explanation of a clear writing style.

    Lanham, Richard A. Revising Prose. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1992.

    Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1979.

    The short classic for writing clear and concise prose.

    Williams, Joseph W. Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace. 5th ed. New York: Longman, 1997.

    A modern and detailed guide with a focus and approach similar to Strunk and White.

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    Section 15.5

    Guides to Scientific Writing

    Day, Robert A. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper. Philadelphia: ISI, 1979.

    Paradis, James G., and Muriel L. Zimmerman. The MIT Guide to Science and Engineering Communication. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1997.

    Wilkinson, A. M. The Scientist's Handbook for Writing papers and Dissertations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1991.

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    Section 15.6

    Guides for Effective Graphs and Text Formats

    Cleveland, W. S. Visualizing Data. Murray Hill, N.J.: AT&T Laboratories, 1993.

    Science Illustration Committee, Council of Biology Editors. Illustrating Science: Standards for Publication. Bethesda, Md.: Council of Biology Editors, 1988.

    Tufte, Edward R. Envisioning Information. Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press, 1990.

    ----. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press, 1983.

    ----.Visual Explanations. Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press, 1996.

    Tufte's works are widely regarded as modern classics in outlining the basic principles of effective presentation of visual information.

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    Section 15.7.1

    Nomenclature, Abbreviations, and Symbols

    Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1991.

    Stedman's Abbrev.: Abbreviations, Acronyms & Symbols. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1990.

    Abbreviations Dictionary. 8th ed. R. De Sola, Ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 1992.

    Dreyfuss, H. Symbol Sourcebook: An Authoritative Guide to International Graphic Symbols. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984.

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    Section 15.7.2

    Tables and Units of Measurement

    Geigy Scientific Tables. 6 volumes. 8th ed. West Caldwell, N.J.: CIBA-Geigy, 1991-1993.

    CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 74th ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 1993.

    Clark, John O. The Macmillan Dictionary of Measurement. New York: Macmillan, 1994.

    Horvath, A. I. Conversion Tables of Units in Science and Engineering. New York: Elsevier, 1986.

    International Organization for Standardization. Quantities and Units. 13 volumes. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization, 1993.

    ----. Units of Measurement. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization, 1982.

    Older and shorter version of the 13 volume work.

    Jerrard, H. G., and D. B. McNeil. A Dictionary of Scientific Units. London: Chapman and Hall, 1992.

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    Section 15.7.3

    Maps and Place Names

    Webster's New Geographical Dictionary. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1988.

    Munro, David. Cambridge World Gazetteer: A Geographical Dictionary. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

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    Section 15.8

    Useful Tables

    Table 1a. SI Base Units

    SI Unit
    Quantity Name Symbol
    length meter m
    mass1 kilogram kg
    time second s
    electric current ampere A
    thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
    amount of substance mole mol
    luminous intensity candela cd

    1 "Weight" in common parlance is often used to mean "mass."

    Table 1b. SI Supplementary Units

    SI Unit
    Quantity Name Symbol Expression in terms of SI base unit
    plane angle radian rad m·m-1=1
    solid angle steradian sr m2·m-2=1

    Table 2. Examples of SI Derived Units Expressed in Terms of Base Units

    SI Unit
    Quantity Name Symbol
    area square meter m2
    volume cubic meter m3
    speed, velocity meter per second m/s
    acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
    wave number reciprocal meter m-1
    density, mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
    specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg
    current density ampere per square meter A/m2
    magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m
    concentration (of amount of substance) mole per cubic meter mol/m3
    luminance candela per square meter cd/m2

    Table 3. SI Derived Units with Special Names

    SI Unit
    Quantity Name Symbol Expression in terms of other units
    frequency hertz Hz s-1
    force newton N m·kg/s2
    pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2
    energy, work, quantity of heat joule J N·m
    power, radiant flux watt W J/s
    electric charge, quantity of electricity coulomb C s·A
    electric potential, poetential difference, electromotive force volt V W/A
    capacitance farad F c/V
    electric resistance ohm Ohm V/A
    electric conductance siemens S A/V
    magnetic flux weber Wb V·s
    magentic flux density tesla T Wb/m2
    inductance henry H Wb/A
    Celsius temperature1 degree Celsius °C K
    luminous flux lumen lm cd·sr
    illuminance lux lx lm/m2
    activity (of a radionuclide) becquerel Bq s-1
    absorbed dose, specific energy imparted, kerma, absorbed dose index gray Gy J/kg
    dose equivalent, dose equivalent index sievert Sv J/kg

    1 In addition to the thermodynamic temperature (symbol T) expressed in kelvins (see Table 1a), use is also made of Celsius temperature (symbol t) defined by the equation t=T-T0 where T0=273.15 K by definition. To express Celsius temperature, the unit "degree Celsius" which is equal to the unit "kelvin" is used; in this case, "degree Celsius" is a special name used in place of "kelvin." An interval or difference of Celsius temperatures can, however, be expressed in kelvins as well as in degrees Celsius.

    Table 4. Examples of SI Derived Units Expressed by Means of Special Names

    SI Unit
    Quantity Name Symbol
    dynamic viscosity pascal second PA·s
    moment of force newton meter N·m
    surface tension newton per meter N/m
    heat flux density, irradiance watt per square meter W/m2
    heat capacity, entropy joule per kelvin J/K
    specific heat capacity, specific entropy joule per kilogram kelvin J(kg·K)
    specific energy joule per kilogram J/kg
    thermal conductivity watt per meter kelvin W/(m·K)
    energy density joule per cubic meter J/M3
    electric field strength volt per meter V/m
    electric charge density coulomb per cubic meter C/m3
    electric flux density coulomb per square meter C/m2
    permittivity farad per meter F/m
    permeability henry per meter H/m
    molar energy joule per mole J/mol
    molar entropy, molar heat capacity joule per mole kelvin J/(mol·K)
    exposure (x and gamma) coulomb per kilogram C/kg
    absorbed dose rate gray per second Gy/s

    Table 5. Examples of SI Derived Units Formed by Using Supplementary Units

    SI Unit
    Quantity Name Symbol
    angular velocity radian per second rad/s
    angular acceleration radian per second squared rad/s2
    radiant intensity watt per steradian W/sr
    radiance watt per square meter steradian W/(m2·sr)

    Table 6. SI Prefixes

    Factor Prefix Symbol
    1024 yotta Y
    1021 zetta Z
    1018 exa E
    1015 peta P
    1012 tera T
    109 giga G
    106 mega M
    103 kilo k
    102 hecto h
    101 deka da
    10-1 deci d
    10-2 centi c
    10-3 milli m
    10-6 micro µ
    10-9 nano n
    10-12 pico p
    10-15 femto f
    10-18 atto a
    10-21 zepto z
    10-24 yocto y

    Table 7. Units in Use with the International System

    Name Symbol Value in SI unit
    minute (time) min 1 min=60 s
    hour h 1 h=60 min=3 600 s
    day d 1 d=24 h=86 400 s
    degree (angle) ° 1°=(pi/180) rad
    minute (angle) ' 1'=(1/60)°=(pi/10 800) rad
    second (angle) " 1"=(1/60)'=(pi/648 000) rad
    1liter L 1 L=1 dm3=10-3 m3
    2metric ton t 1 t=103 kg
    hectare (land area) ha 1 ha=1 hm2=104 m2
    3electronvolt eV 1eV=1.602 18×10-19 J, approximately
    3unified atomic mass unit u 1 u=1.660 54×10-27 kg, approximately

    1 Both L and l are internationally accepted symbols for liter. Because "l" can easily be confused with the numeral "1," the symbol "L" is recommended for United States use.

    2 In many countries, this unit is called "tonne."

    3 The values of these units expressed in terms of SI units must be obtained by experiment, and are therefore not known exactly. The electronvolt is the kinetic energy acquired by an electron passing through a potential difference of 1 volt in vacuum. The unified atomic mass unit is equal to (1/12) of the mass of the atom of the nuclide 12C.

    Table 8. Units in Use Temporarily with the International System

    nautical mile barn roentgen
    knot bar rad3
    ångström gal2 rem4
    are1 curie

    1 Unit of land area.

    2 Unit of acceleration.

    3 Unit of absorbed dose.

    4 Unit of dose equivalent.

    --Physics Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology

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    Common Writing Problems for Non-Native Speakers of English

    1. Article and Noun Problems
    2. Verb Problems
    3. Word Form
    4. Word Order and Sentence Structure
    5. Word Choice
    6. Wordiness
    7. Punctuation and Mechanics
    8. Sentence and Paragraph Coherence
    9. Organization and Stylistic Approach
    10. Documentation and Use of Source Language

    Article and Noun Problems

    Articles
    Definite Articles
    Indefinite Articles
    Choosing between a and an
    Usage Rules for Articles
    Nouns
    Countable and Uncountable Nouns
    Number
    Other Noun Topics

    Verb Problems

    Subject-Verb Agreement
    Tense
    Progressive Form
    Voice
    Mood
    Auxiliary Verbs
    Irregular Verbs
    Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
    Other Verb Topics

    Word Form

    Nouns Number Pronouns Pronoun Case
    Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement     Verbs Nonfinite Verbs
    Infinitives
    Gerunds
    Base Form
    Present Participle
    Past Participle     Adjectives Demonstrative Adjectives
    Participial Adjectives
    Comparative and Superlative Adjectives     Adverbs Comparative and Superlative Adverbs Other Part of Speech Topics

    Word Order and Sentence Structure

    Word Order
    Ordinary Word Order
    Inverted Word Order
    Interrogative Sentences
    Overloaded Sentences
    Sentence Fragments
    Subjects
    Predicates
    Comma Splice
    Fused Sentences
    Misplaced Modifiers
    Other Word Order Topics
    Other Clause Structure Topics
    Other Sentence Topics

    Word Choice

    Pronouns Relative Pronouns
    that/which/who
    Demonstrative Pronouns
    Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement     Modal Auxiliaries
    Prepositions
    Biased Language Sexist Language
    Ageist Language
    Language Biased Against People with Disabilities
    Ethnically and Racially Biased Language     Double Negatives
    ESL Usage Glossary
    Other Word Choice Topics

    Wordiness

    Wordiness
    Passive Voice and Active Voice
    Nominalizations
    Unnecessary Repetition
    Unnecessary Words and Phrases
    Other Sentence Topics

    Punctuation and Mechanics

    Commas Superfluous Commas Colons
    Semicolons
    Question Marks
    Apostrophes
    Quotation Marks
    Dashes
    Capitalization
    Italics
    Numbers
    Spelling
    Other Punctuation Topics
    Other Mechanics Topics

    Sentence and Paragraph Coherence

    Placement of Phrases and Clauses
    Old Information Before New
    Important Information in Main Clause
    Stringy Sentences
    Lack of Parallelism
    Choppy Sentences
    Dangling Modifiers
    Faulty Comparisons
    Inappropriate Shifts
    Sequence of Tenses
    Paragraph Coherence
    Transitional Devices
    Transitional Words and Phrases
    Common Transitional Words and Phrases
    Paragraph Unity
    Topic Sentences
    Other Sentence Topics
    Other Paragraph Topics

    Organization and Stylistic Approach

    Characteristics of Effective Technical Communication
    Clarity
    Conciseness
    Organization
    Developing a Detailed Outline
    Letters
    Oral Presentations
    Résumés
    Other Document Planning Topics
    Other Document Format Topics
    Other Document Types

    Documentation and Use of Source Language

    Using the Language of Your Source Appropriately
    Acknowledging Sources
    Other Documentation Topics

    ESL Writer's Resources

    ESL Dictionaries
    Grammar and Usage Guides
    Other Writer's Resources

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    accept/except

    Accept, a verb, means "to receive willingly," "to recognize as true," or "to agree to undertake." Except can be a preposition meaning "with the exclusion of" or a verb meaning "leave out."

    The controller accepts the new memory address.

    Ginga accepted the leadership of the redesign team.

    The entire team was present except the project manager. [preposition]

    The professor cannot except any students from the final. [verb]

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    adapt/adopt

    Adapt means "to adjust something" or "to become adjusted to a new context." Adopt means "to accept" or "to make one's own."

    The design standard adopted by the facility included a procedure for adapting the existing production technology to the new requirements.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    advice/advise

    Advice is a noun that means "a suggestion" or "a recommendation." Advise is a verb that means "to suggest," "to give notice," or "to give advice or counsel to."

    Dr. Perez's advice was to solve the file-naming problems before designing the network.

    Dr. Perez advised the team to solve the file-naming problem before designing the network.

    This letter is to advise you that we will no longer support software release 1.0.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    affect/effect/impact

    Do not confuse the words affect, effect, and impact, each of which can be used both as a verb and as a noun. Avoid incorrectly using impact as a verb in place of affect or as a noun in place of effect.

    Affect as a verb means "to influence."

    The temperature affects the growth rate of the bacterial sample.

    Affect as a noun has a specialized meaning in medicine and psychology, referring to moods and feeling as distinct from thoughts or knowledge.

    Dua (1989) constructed the Thoughts and Real-Life Experience Scale (THARL) to assess the degree of positive and negative affect experienced by people as a result of their thoughts and day-to-day interactions.

    --J. K. Dua, "The Role of Negative Affect and Positive Affect in Stress, Depression, Self-Esteem, Assertiveness, Type A Behaviors, Psychological Health, and Physical Health," Genet Psychological Monographs

    Effect as a verb means "to bring about, to produce," or to "accomplish something."

    The temperature reversal effected a major slowdown in the bacterial growth rate.

    Effect as a noun means "result."

    Increased bacterial growth rate was one major effect of the rise in pond temperature.

    Impact as a verb means "strike with a blow" or "to pack firmly together."

    The wisdom tooth impacted the molar.

    Impact as a noun means "a collision."

    The constant impact of the two gear mechanisms on each other eventually produced metal fatigue in several sprockets.

    Do not use impact as a verb in place of "to affect."

    Weak

    The temperature impacts the growth rate of the bacterial sample.

    Improved

    The temperature affects the growth rate of the bacterial sample.

    Do not use impact as a noun in place of "effect."

    Weak

    The release of hydrocarbons has had a significant impact on the depth of the ozone layer.

    Improved

    The release of hydrocarbons has had a significant effect on the depth of the ozone layer.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    all together/altogether

    All together means "gathered in one location" or "all acting in concert." Altogether means "entirely."

    The committee members were all together in one room.

    The committee members were altogether too friendly for comfort.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    a lot/alot

    The correct form is two words: a lot. It is used colloquially to mean "many" or "a great deal" and should be avoided in formal writing.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    all ready/already

    All ready is an adjective phrase that means that one or more items are set to go. Already is an adverb meaning "before" or "previously."

    The gauge for the liquid-level monitor is all ready to install.

    The liquid-level monitor has already been installed.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    alternate/alternative

    Alternate as an adjective means "substitute" and implies second choice of two. (As a verb, pronounced differently, alternate means "to move back and forth.") Alternative may be either an adjective or a noun and means "one among several."

    Small lithium batteries will provide an alternate source of energy, should the solar panels fail. [adjective]

    Lithium batteries are an alternative form of energy that may be used in extremely cold environments. [adjective]

    We needed to find an alternative. [noun]

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    among/between

    Use among with three or more items. Use between with two items.

    The interactions among the two acids and the base produce a neutral solution.

    The interaction between the acid and the base produces a neutral solution.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    amount/number

    Amount refers to a quantity that can be measured but not counted: a small amount of water leakage. Number refers to quantities that can be counted: a small number of ice particles.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    anxious/eager

    Careful writers distinguish between anxious, meaning "uneasy," and eager, meaning "enthusiastic, having a keen interest."

    Weak

    We were anxious to meet and congratulate her.

    Improved

    We were eager to meet and congratulate her.

    Acceptable

    He was anxious about the results of the examination, fearing that he had not done well.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    anybody/any body

    Anybody is an indefinite pronoun referring to an unspecified person. Any body is a noun phrase referring to an arbitrary body.

    When I went into the laboratory, I did not see anybody.

    The grave diggers were not looking for just any body; they would be satisfied only with the body of a famous person.

    See also anyone/any one and everybody/every body.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    anymore/any more

    Anymore is a time adverb. It is used only in an expressed negative sense. Any more is used as an indefinite pronoun or a determiner.

    People don't control mosquito populations by spreading oil on standing water anymore.

    We already have enough data. We don't need any more. [indefinite pronoun]

    If there are any more accidents on the assembly line, we will have to close down production. [determiner]

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    anyone/any one

    Anyone refers to any person at all. Any one is more selective, referring to a single member of a group.

    The results of the experiment did not surprise anyone.

    I would be delighted to work with any one of those engineers.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    as . . . as/so . . . as

    Use as . . . as to compare two items either in a positive or a negative statement. Use so . . . as only for negative comparisons.

    The last structure is as big as the previous structures. [positive]

    The last structure is not as big as the previous structures. [negative]

    The last structure is not so big as the previous structures.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    assume/presume

    Assume means "to take as granted or as true" and is associated with hypothesis formation. Presume suggests belief, without clear justification, that something is true.

    In this analysis, we assume that the contamination was not caused by faulty filters in the air conditioner intake.

    We presume that all contract work will be completed by the delivery dates.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    assure/ensure/insure

    Assure means "to reinforce the likelihood that something is attained" or "to state convincingly." Ensure means "to make certain." Insure means "to guarantee monetary replacement in case of loss."

    The use of a spectroscope assured us of a high level of accuracy.

    The operator must ensure that Valves A and B are never open at the same time.

    We insured the instrument for five thousand dollars.

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    Help: 4.4

    Useful Browser Functions

    Menu

    • Use Edit, Find to search for a word within the open page.
    • Use Go and highlight one of the recent pages (HTML files) to reopen it.
    • Use Bookmarks, (Netscape Navigator) or Favorites (Internet Explorer), Add Bookmark (Netscape Navigator) or Add to Favorites (Internet Explorer) to create a convenient reference to a specific page.

    Toolbar

  • Use the Back and Forward buttons to return to pages you have just referenced.
  • Use the Find button (Netscape Navigator) to search for a word within the currently displayed page.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    bad/badly

    Bad is an adjective. It may precede the noun it modifies (a bad experience), or it may follow a form of be or other linking verbs such as feel and look. Badly is an adverb and follows action verbs.

    Our team could have looked bad if we'd missed the deadline.

    He scored badly on the placement exam.

    Literally, "I feel badly" would mean that your sense of touch was defective. See also the entry for good/well.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    because/since

    Avoid using since to indicate causality; because is the clearer causal indicator. Use since to indicate lapse of time.

    The phytoplankton population increased rapidly because the light source intensified.

    Four hours have passed since the light source first began to intensify.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    because of/due to

    Both phrases express causality. However, use due to only after a form of the verb be. Do not use due to in place of because of in other circumstances.

    The operating system shutdown was due to user overload.

    The operating system shut down because of user overload.

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    Help: 4.5

    Creating a Link: How to Insert a Reference Link into a Word Processing Document

    This feature is useful to anyone reading and analyzing a word processing document electronically. While reading the document, an instructor or reviewer can insert a reference link into the document and send it back to the writer. When the writer reviews the paper and sees the link that has been inserted, he or she can simply put the cursor anywhere in the link and run View Handbook Link, and the Handbook will immediately open to the appropriate page.

    Steps to Create a Handbook Link

    1. Open your word processor.
    2. Open the word processing document into which you wish to insert a reference link.
    3. Open your browser and go to the Handbook using Open Handbook via one of the following:

      4. Windows Users
      Mayfield Toolbar
      Ctrl + Alt + Shift + H
      Customized icon button

      Macintosh Users
      Command + Option + H
      Handbook alias

    4. Using the table of contents, the index, or a hypertext link within the text, go to the page of the Handbook you would like to reference.
    5. Now, return to the word processing document, but DO NOT CLOSE OR MINIMIZE YOUR BROWSER; leave it open in the background.
    6. Place the cursor (blinking vertical bar or I-beam) at the point in the document where you want the link to be inserted.
    7. Run Create Handbook Link via:

      8. Mayfield Toolbar (Windows users)
      Ctrl + Alt + Shift + G (Windows users)
      Command + Option + G (Macintosh users)
    8. Notice the link that has been inserted. It should be a word or phrase surrounded by  Word Order ##. The text will be bold, and green if your monitor is using color.
    9. You can return to the browser (Alt + Tab, Taskbar, or Macintosh Finder) and go to a different topic. As long as the browser and word processor are running, you can create as many links as you like. Always remember to save the word processing document, since the reference links are editable text just like the rest of the document.

      10. NOTE: Because reference links are not write-protected, it is possible to edit or change a link without realizing it. Be careful to avoid making such changes because this will create invalid links.

    TopLinks

    TopLinks is a list of the most commonly used reference links. Using TopLinks is the easiest way to insert a link, since you don't need to actually navigate to the Handbook page with your browser. You can Copy and Paste or "drag and drop" the links from the list right into your document.

    Steps to Use TopLinks:

    1. Open the word processing document into which you wish to insert a reference link.
    2. Place the blinking insertion point at the point where you want the link to be inserted.
    3. Open the TopLinks file that is formatted for your word processor, and locate the reference link you want to insert.
    4. Select the link and copy it. Return to the word processing document into which you wish to insert a reference link. Paste the link where you want it to be inserted.
    5. Alternatively, you may be able to drag and drop the links if your word processor supports it. Select the link and drag the selection from the TopLinks list to the point in the document being edited where you want the link inserted. Word processors vary in how they implement "drag and drop." You may need to hold down the Option key (Macintosh) or Control key (Windows) to copy, rather than move, the selected text. Or you can select and copy the link in the TopLinks list, and paste it into the document being edited.
    6. Remember to save the document after inserting the link.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    can/may

    Can expresses the ability to do something. May indicates the possibility something will be done. May also indicates permission.

    The anode and cathode can be fabricated of slightly different materials.

    If the occasion arises, we may have to do that.

    May I leave the room?

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    censor/censure

    A censor is one who supervises conduct and morals by censoring objectionable material. Censure is strong disapproval or condemnation. For example, members of the Senate occasionally censure one of their colleagues for unethical conduct.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    come/go

    Come and go are both motion verbs; come refers to drawing near to a location, whereas go refers to moving away from a location.

    Albert Einstein came to the United States via Switzerland.

    We went to the conference in Norway.

    Use come if the direction of motion is toward the present location of the speaker or the reader of the document.

    Come here! [towards the speaker]

    I am terribly sorry, but I cannot come to your meeting tomorrow. [towards the reader]

    Use come if the direction of motion is toward the residence or workplace of the speaker or writer and the subject of the verb is not the speaker or writer.

    Yesterday, a brilliant geophysicist came to our company for a visit. [Another person moves toward the workplace of the speaker.]

    Otherwise, use go.

    Go away! [away from the speaker]

    I am terribly sorry, but I cannot go to the construction site with you tomorrow. [away from the present location of the reader]

    Dr. Suzuki, who runs the Tokyo lab, will go to Italy next week for vacation. [away from the residence or present location of the speaker]

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    Help: 4.7

    Creating a Comment: How to Insert Personal Feedback into a Document

    This feature allows you to add readily noticeable comments directly into a writer's document. The comments you insert will be bold, red (on a color monitor), and bracketed. Create Comment will create a comment from any selected text, or it will simply insert brackets and set the formatting so that all you need do is start typing.

    Steps to Insert Comments

    1. Launch your word processor.
    2. Open the document into which you wish to insert comments.
    3. Place the blinking insertion point where you would like the comment to be created.
    4. Once the cursor is in the right spot, run Create Comment via:

      5. Mayfield Toolbar (Windows users)
      Ctrl + Alt + Shift + K (Windows users)
      Command + Option + K (Macintosh users)
    5. Now you can begin to type directly into the document. Notice the different color and font of the text.
    6. You can also select text that is already written, and run Create Comment (as above). This will bring attention to selected text for revision, etc.
    7. Remember to save the document after inserting comments.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    complementary/complimentary

    Complement or complementary refers to a thing or an amount that completes something. Compliment or complimentary refers to something that is given as praise or is free.

    A complementary experimental technique, based on impact velocity ratio, provides the necessary data to move the analysis to the next phase.

    Despite the compliments of the assessment team on our excellent progress, serious maintenance issues remain.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    compose/comprise

    Compose means "to create" or "to make up." Comprise means "to include" or "to contain."

    The committee is composed of five engineers. [passive voice]

    The committee comprises five engineers. [active voice]

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    concur in/concur with

    Concur in is followed by the decision or the agreement. Concur with is followed by the person sharing a decision or agreement.

    We concurred in the decision to go ahead with the project.

    I concurred with the project manager on the decision to go ahead with the project.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    continual/continuous

    Continual is an adjective meaning "recurring in steady and usually rapid succession." Continuous, also an adjective, means "marked by uninterrupted flow."

    We continually hear that hard work is necessary to succeed in graduate school.

    That the noise is a continuous hum suggests an explanation other than atmospheric turbulence.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    criterion/criteria

    Criterion is singular, meaning "a standard of judgment or criticism." Criteria is the plural form of criterion and should not be used as a singular noun.

    The design of the mechanism must meet five criteria.

    Unacceptable

    The first criteria is safety.

    Acceptable

    The first criterion is safety.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    datum/data

    Datum is singular, meaning "one piece of information" or "one numerical result." Data is the plural form of datum and should not be used as a singular noun.

    Unacceptable

    The data is in and it does not look useful

    Acceptable

    The data are in and they do not look useful.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    describe/say/tell

    Describe, say and tell are all verbs of communication. Describe means "explain the details of an item or a situation." If the receiver of the description is mentioned, the receiver must be preceded by to.

    The design team described the goals of the project.

    The team described the goals of the project to the assembled managers.

    Say is used to introduce a message. The message (usually a noun clause or a quotation) must be contained in the sentence, but the receiver of the message is optional. If the receiver of the message is included, it must be preceded by to.

    They said that the project had been canceled.

    They said to us, "We promise to complete the final report by next Monday."

    Tell is used to explain to whom a message was given as well as to introduce the message. The receiver of the message is usually present in the sentence. If the receiver precedes the message, the preposition to is not used. If the receiver follows the message, to must precede the receiver.

    They told us why the project had been canceled.

    They told the long, sad story to the members of the board, who sat stoically waiting for the bottom line.

    Long messages, such as stories or anecdotes, are typically introduced with tell, whereas say is used for single sentences or words.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    different from/different than

    Different from is traditionally the preferred expression.

    Although the ultrasonic method is different from common detection approaches, it reduces certain risks.

    Different than should be limited to contrasts between something and a following whole clause.

    The ultrasonic method is different than our engineers said it would be.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    dilemma/problem

    A dilemma is a difficult choice between unattractive alternatives. A problem is a situation that must be resolved somehow.

    When the prototype did not perform to specifications, we were faced with the dilemma of abandoning the project and losing all the resources we had invested in it to date or going ahead with the project and having no guarantees of any future returns.

    Jane described the problem we were having in the waste water treatment facility.

    Do not use dilemma in place of problem.

    Weak

    Can you find a solution for our dilemma?

    Improved

    Can you find a solution for our problem? [We don't have any solutions right now.]

    Improved

    Can you find a way out of our dilemma? [We have some solutions right now, but none are attractive.]

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    disinterested/uninterested

    Disinterested means "objective." Uninterested means "without interest" or "indifferent."

    Engineers must balance the need to be interested in problems with the need to be disinterested as they evaluate possible solutions.

    As I became more excited, the client seemed to become more uninterested.

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    Help: Appendix C

    Create Comment

    Word processor not running (Macintosh) Macintosh message: Your word processor must be running in order for you to create a comment. Please launch "<word processor>," open a document, and place the cursor where you wish to create a comment.

    In order to create a comment, your cursor must be placed within a word processing document. This message will appear if you press the key combination Command + Option + K and a word processor is not currently running.

    Action:

    1. Open your word processor.
    2. Go to the word processing document in which you would like to make a comment.
    3. Select the text you would like to highlight, or place your cursor where you would like to insert a new comment.
    4. Run Create Comment again.
    No word processing document open (Windows / Macintosh) Windows and Macintosh message: There is no document open and therefore no place to create a comment. Please open a document in "<word processor>" and place the cursor where you wish to create a comment.

    This message will appear only when you are using Microsoft Word version 6.0 or later. In order to create a comment, you must be editing a word processing document.

    Action:

    1. Launch your word processor.
    2. Open to the document in which you would like to make a comment.
    3. Place your cursor where you would like to insert a comment, or select the text you would like to highlight.
    4. Run Create Comment again.

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    Help: Appendix C

    General Error Conditions

    Preferences file not found (Macintosh) Macintosh message: Your Mayfield Preferences file could not be found. Please create a Preferences file by running the "Configure Mayfield" application.

    The Macintosh implementation relies on a Preferences file which is stored in the "System Folder:Preferences:Mayfield Preferences" folder. If that file is missing, or not in the correct location, this error will be triggered.

    Action:

    1. Open the Mayfield Handbooks folder.
    2. Double-click on Configure Mayfield.
    3. Follow the directions on screen.
    4. For more information, see Installation for the Macintosh in Chapter 3.
    5. Save changes and quit. This will ensure that the Preferences files is properly created and in its correct location.
    Error in Preferences file (Macintosh) Macintosh message: Your Mayfield Preferences file contains an error or does not have all the information it requires. Please run the "Configure Mayfield" application to correct the Mayfield Preferences file.

    The Macintosh implementation relies on a preferences file which is stored in the "System Folder:Preferences:Mayfield Preferences" folder. If that file is has missing information, this error will be triggered.

    Action:

    1. Open the Mayfield Handbooks folder.
    2. Double-click on Configure Mayfield.
    3. Follow the directions on screen.
    4. For more information, see Installation for the Macintosh in Chapter 3.
    5. Save changes and quit. This will ensure that the Preferences file is properly created and in its correct location.
    Application not found (Window / Macintosh) Windows message: The application "" could not be found. Please run "setup.exe" and choose Modify Settings to reset the browser location.
    Macintosh message: The application "" could not be found. Please run "Configure Mayfield" to select a <browser or word processor>.

    The most likely reason for seeing this message is that the browser or word processor Handbook has been moved, renamed, or deleted.

    Action (Windows users):

    1. Run the "setup.exe" program as for installation.
    2. On the first Handbook window, choose Modify Settings.
    3. Click the Next buttons in each window until the program finishes updating the installation.
    4. For more information, see Installation for Windows in Chapter 2.

    Action (Macintosh users):

    1. Open the Mayfield Handbooks folder.
    2. Double-click on Configure Mayfield.
    3. Follow the directions on screen.
    4. For more information, see Installation for the Macintosh in Chapter 3.
    5. Save changes and quit. This will ensure that the software knows where the applications are to be found.
    Links file not found (Macintosh) Macintosh message: The "Mayfield.lnk" file could not be found. Please mount the disk containing the HTML files, or re-run the "Configure Mayfield" application, or reinstall the Handbook.

    The Macintosh implementation relies on a links file. It is installed once by Install Technical Handbook, and is used to map reference link text to the actual corresponding HTML file. This message will be triggered if

    1. the disk containing the file is not mounted (e.g. the CD-ROM is not in the drive), or
    2. the Handbook folder containing all the files has been moved or deleted, or
    3. the links file is not found in the same folder as all the HTML files.

    Action:

      If 1, simply mount the disk containing the files.
      If 2, run Configure Mayfield and be sure to select the correct Handbook folder.
      If 3, reinstall the Handbook. For more information, see Installation for the Macintosh in Chapter 3.
    Handbook not properly installed (Windows) Windows message: The Handbook is not properly installed on your computer. Please reinstall the Handbook.

    This error will occur if information in the Registry (Windows 95) or the Mayfield.ini file (Windows 3.1) is incorrect or incomplete.

    Action:

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    Help: Appendix C

    Create Handbook Link

    Browser not open (Windows / Macintosh) Windows and Macintosh message: A reference link to the Handbook cannot be created because the Handbook is not open. Please open the Handbook and go to the page to which you want to create a reference.

    In order to create a link, your browser must be open to a page within the Handbook. When you return to the word processor to create the link, the browser must remain open in the background.

    Action:

    1. Confirm that your browser is currently running.
    2. Open the Handbook using one of the following methods:
      3. Mayfield Toolbar (Windows users)
      Ctrl + Alt + Shift + H (Windows users)
      Command + Option + H (Macintosh users)
    3. Open the Handbook to the page from which you wish to create a link.
    4. DO NOT CLOSE OR MINIMIZE the browser at this point. Return to the word processing document.
    5. Reposition your cursor in the writer's document at the point where you wish to insert the link.
    6. Run Create Handbook Link again.
    Browser not viewing Handbook page (Windows / Macintosh) Windows message: A reference link to the Handbook cannot be created. Please check that you have only one window open in "<browser application name>" and that it is displaying content from the Handbook.
    Macintosh message: A reference link to the Handbook cannot be created. Please check that you have a window open in "<browser application name>" and that it is displaying content from the Handbook.

    In order to create a link, your browser must be open to a page in the Handbook. Though your browser may be running, it is currently not open to a page within the Handbook. Windows users must have no more than browser window open.

    NOTE: When you return to the word processor to create the link, the browser must remain open in the background.

    Action:

    1. Confirm that your browser is launched:
      2. Windows: Minimize any open applications or windows to determine which applications are currently running.
      Macintosh: Use your Macintosh Finder to determine which applications are open. If the browser is not running, you must launch it and open the Handbook before continuing.
    2. Open the Handbook using one of the following methods:
      3. Mayfield Toolbar (Windows users)
      Ctrl + Alt + Shift + H (Windows users)
      Command + Option + H (Macintosh users)
    3. Open the Handbook to the page from which you wish to create a link.
    4. DO NOT CLOSE OR MINIMIZE your browser at this point. Return to the word processing document.
    5. Reposition your cursor to the point in the word processing document where you wish to insert the link.
    6. Run Create Handbook Link again.
    Link not found for current Handbook page (Windows / Macintosh) Windows message: A link cannot be created to the page of the Handbook you currently have open.
    Macintosh message: No link was found for <current HTML file name>.

    This error indicates that the Handbook.ind (Windows) or Mayfield.lnk (Macintosh) file does not contain a link for the page being viewed in the Handbook. This should never happen, but if the Handbook was installed on the local hard drive, it is possible that the links file could have been edited.

    Action:

      The only recourse is to reinstall the Handbook. (See Installation for Windows in Chapter 2 or Installation for the Macintosh in Chapter 3.)
    Preventing the insertion of links into macro panes (Windows) Windows message: A reference link to the Handbook cannot be created because you are not in the main document area. Please check that you have your cursor placed at the location in the word processing document where you would like to place the reference link.

    This is a safeguard to protect you from editing the macros. This message will appear if your cursor somehow became misplaced and is now in a macro window instead of the actual document.

    Action:

    1. Go to your browser and confirm that the Handbook page to which you wish to create a link is still open.
    2. Return to your word processor and make sure that your cursor is within the text of the document, at the point where you wish to insert the link.
    3. Run Create Handbook Link again.
    Word processor not running (Macintosh) Macintosh message: Your word processor must be running in order for you to create a Handbook reference link. Please launch "<word processor app>," open a document, and place the cursor where you wish to create a link.

    This message will appear if you press the key combination (Command + Option + G) and a word processor is not currently running.

    Action:

    1. Launch your browser and open the Handbook (Command + Option + H).
    2. Go to the page to which you wish to create a link.
    3. Leaving your browser running, open your word processor.
    4. Open the document in which to would like to insert the link.
    5. Position your cursor within the document at the point where you wish to insert the link.
    6. Run Create Handbook Link again.
    No word processing document open (Windows / Macintosh) Windows and Macintosh message: A reference link to the Handbook cannot be created because there is no document open. Please open a document in "" and place the cursor where you wish to create a link.

    This message will appear only when using Microsoft Word version 6.0 or later. Basically, the Handbook is open, and the word processor is open, but there is no document window open.

    Action:

    1. Confirm that your browser is open to the page you to which you wish to create a link.
    2. Leave your browser running and return to your word processor (or reopen your word processor)
    3. Open the document in which to would like to insert the link.
    4. Position your cursor within the document at the point where you wish to insert the link.
    5. Run Create Handbook Link again.

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    Help: Appendix C

    View Handbook Link

    No reference link selected (Windows / Macintosh) Windows and Macintosh message: It appears that no reference link to the Handbook is selected in your "<word processor>" document. Please make sure that you have selected or placed your cursor on a reference link which will be demarcated by delimiters. However, selecting the entire link will always produce the fastest results.

    Action:

    1. Return to the word processing document in which the link has been inserted.
    2. Select the entire link by highlighting the reference, including the Paragraphs ParaThegraphs Paragraphs Paragraphs.

      In either instance, if you know what the link is supposed to look like, you can simply edit the text within your word processor (in the first example, delete the intervening "The"; in the second example, add the "delimiters.

    3. Run View Handbook Link again.
    No word processing document open (Windows / Macintosh) Windows and Macintosh message: There is no document open and therefore no link to the Handbook is selected. Please open a document in "<word processor>" and select the link for the Handbook page you wish to view.

    This message will appear only when you are using Microsoft Word version 6.0 or later. In order to run View Handbook Link, your cursor must be placed on a reference link that has been inserted into a word processing document. This message will appear only if your word processor is running and you have attempted to run View Handbook Link using a key combination but no document window is open.

    Action:

    1. Open your word processor.
    2. Open the document which contains the reference link.
    3. Select the entire reference link (including the ## delimiters).
    4. Run View Handbook Link again.

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    Help: Appendix C

    Open Handbook

    Cannot open browser (Windows / Macintosh) Windows message: The application "<browser name>" could not be found. Please run setup.exe and choose Modify Settings to reset the browser location.
    Macintosh message: The application "" could not be found. Please run "Configure Mayfield" to select a browser.

    This mostly likely happens for one of two reasons:

    • A compatible browser is not actually installed on your computer.
    • The Handbook cannot locate your browser because it has moved.

    Action:

    1. Make sure that you have a compatible browser (Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator) currently installed on your system, and make sure you can launch and run it. If you cannot find your browser, locate the installation disks and reinstall it.
    2. If your browser runs successfully, then go back to the Handbook Installation.
    Cannot find the Handbook (Windows / Macintosh) Windows message: The opening page of the electronic Handbook cannot be found. Please reinstall the Handbook software.
    Macintosh message: The opening page of the electronic Handbook cannot be found. Please make sure that you have the Handbook folder correctly selected in the Mayfield Configuration Application.

    This message will occur if the title page of the Handbook (home.htm) cannot be found.

    Action:

    1. If you did not install the HTML files onto your hard drive, confirm that the Mayfield Handbook CD is inserted correctly into your CD-ROM drive, and run Open Handbook again.
    2. If you can locate the home.htm file, that would indicate that only the path to the file is incorrect.
      3. Windows: Run the Setup.exe program and choose the Modify Settings option. Make sure that the destination location for the Handbook folder is correct.
      Macintosh: Run Configure Mayfield. Click the Browse button in the Handbook Folder pane and select the folder containing the HTML files.
    3. If you cannot locate the "home.htm" file, then you will need to reinstall the Handbook.
      4. Windows: Run the entire installation beginning with step 1, and be sure that you choose to install the HTML files. For further information, see Installation for Windows in Chapter 2.
      Macintosh: Run the entire installation beginning with step 1, and be sure that you choose to install the HTML files. Next, run Configure Mayfield and be sure to select the appropriate folder where the HTML files are located. For further information, see Installation for the Macintosh in Chapter 3.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    each other/one another

    Each other and one another are both reciprocal pronouns. Although these two expressions are generally synonymous, each other is more common when there are only two items involved in the action, whereas one another is more common when there are more than two items.

    The two new Nobel laureates congratulated each other at the reception.

    The group of new Nobel laureates congratulated one another at the reception.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    either

    Like most indefinite pronouns, either is singular. As a subject, it takes a singular verb. (See also the discussion of subject-verb agreement.) When either is an antecedent, the pronoun that refers to it is singular. (See also the discussion of pronoun-antecedent agreement.)

    Either is fine with me. [subject]

    Either of the choices has its merits. [antecedent]

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    etc.

    The abbreviation etc. comes from the Latin et cetera, meaning "and the like" or "and so forth." Since and is part of the meaning, and should not be used with etc.

    Unacceptable

    He brought goggles, gloves, respirators, and etc.

    Acceptable

    He brought goggles, gloves, respirators, etc.

    Do not place etc. at the end of a list that begins with for example, including, or such as. These phrases already suggest the inclusion of other things.

    Unacceptable

    He brought safety equipment, such as goggles, gloves, respirators, etc.

    Acceptable

    He brought safety equipment, such as goggles, gloves and respirators.

    Generally, use a phrase such as and so on, and so forth or and the like rather than etc..

    Weak

    He brought goggles, gloves, respirators, etc.

    Improved

    He brought goggles, gloves, respirators, and so forth.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    everybody/every body

    Everybody is an indefinite pronoun referring to every member of a group of people. Every body is a noun phrase referring to every member of a group of bodies.

    When the radiation alarm began to sound, everybody evacuated the facility immediately.

    Every body in the morgue is labeled carefully and stored separately.

    See also anybody/any body and everyone/every one.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    everyone/every one

    Everyone refers to all the members of a group of people. Every one refers to each member of a group of items or people considered individually.

    Everyone arrived at the meeting on time.

    We thought we would have enough glassware to run the experiment tomorrow, but it turns out that every one of the flasks is cracked.

    We invited six well-known toxicologists to our seminar, but every one turned down our invitation.

    See also everybody/every body and anyone/any one.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    facilitate

    Facilitate means "to make easier" or "to make possible."

    Upgrading our microprocessors will facilitate our switch to a 32 bit operating system.

    Do not use facilitate in conjunction with, or to mean, "help" or "assist in."

    Weak

    Members of the design team helped facilitate the presentation.

    Improved

    Members of the design team helped in the presentation.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    farther/further

    Farther refers to physical distance. Further refers to degree or extent.

    The test vehicle traveled much farther than expected.

    We examined the material further for environmental effects.

    Reference Link Text

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    Help: 4.1

    Software Features, an Overview

    The Mayfield Handbook provides unique opportunities to both the writers and the instructors or managers who use it. In this chapter, you will learn how to
    • Customize your word processor to support unique commands and shortcuts
    • Use Open Handbook to open your browser and access the Handbook in one step
    • Use Create Handbook Link to create a reference link to the Handbook and insert that link into a word processing document
    • Use View Handbook Link to launch your browser automatically and locate the referenced page
    • Use Create Comment to insert personal feedback directly into a writer's paper

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    fewer/less

    Use fewer with countable nouns: fewer seals, fewer molecules, fewer people. Use less with noncountable nouns: less chlorine, less time, less energy.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    find/find out/know

    Find describes the successful outcome of a search or a discovery.

    Our company hopes to find oil off the coast of Mexico.

    Alexander Fleming found a mold growing in his bacteria culture.

    Find out describes a change in knowledge that the subject has about the world. First the subject is unaware of the fact; then the subject becomes aware of the fact.

    We found out why the pipes were corroding so quickly.

    Know describes the information that the subject has available at any given time. Know is a state verb and does not appear in the progressive.

    We knew that there was little chance of success, but we tried the experiment anyway.

    Unacceptable

    She is knowing three chemicals that will serve our purposes.

    Acceptable

    She knows three chemicals that will serve our purposes.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    flaunt/flout

    Flaunt means "to show off." Flout means "to treat with disrespect" or "to conspicuously ignore."

    At the conference, they flaunted the features of the new product line before all of the attendees.

    The employee was asked to leave because he flouted all the safety rules.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    foreword/forward

    A foreword is a prefatory statement written by someone other than the author of the work. Forward is commonly an adverb or an adjective meaning "toward the front."

    In her foreword, Dr. Mavvicar explained the importance of the research.

    The project moved forward after the team solved the compatibility problems.

    Forward is also used as a verb.

    Please forward this document in triplicate.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    former/latter

    The words former and latter refer to two items.

    The engineer and the technician immediately began to fix the mechanism, the former checking the valve readings while the latter began opening the housing.

    These terms require the reader to identify what they refer to, however, and thus should be used with care. If in doubt, revise to name the items referred to.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    get/got/gotten

    Get is the present tense form of the verb. Got is the past tense form as well as one of the two alternatives for the past participle. The other alternative for the past participle is gotten, which is generally preferred in the United States.

    We get our raw materials from companies in Texas and Nevada.

    We got our raw materials from companies in Texas and Nevada.

    We have always gotten our chemicals from companies in Texas and Nevada.

    In informal contexts, many speakers use have got, 've got, or simply got to mean "have" or "must." You should avoid this usage of the verb get in your writing; instead, use have or must.

    Weak

    We have got several problems on our hands.

    Improved

    We have several problems on our hands.

    Unacceptable

    We got several problems on our hands.

    Acceptable

    We have several problems on our hands.

    Weak

    We've got to find a solution to our problems.

    Improved

    We must find a solution to our problems.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    good/well

    Good is an adjective. Well is usually an adverb. With the meaning of "healthy," however, well can also be an adjective.

    Baking bread smells good. [adjective]

    A perfume tester needs to smell well. [adverb]

    The goal of the operation is to make the patient well. [adjective]

    Reference Link Text

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    Help: 1

    Before You Begin

    The Mayfield Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing is an effective and efficient tool for writers, students, teachers, and managers at all levels. It addresses the writing processes, strategies, and organizational skills necessary to produce effective technical and scientific documentation. It covers all standard types and elements of technical and scientific documents and provides a comprehensive treatment of grammar, mechanics, organization, and style. In addition, it provides entries designed specifically for writers who are non-native speakers of English.

    This electronic version includes the Mayfield Handbook in its entirety. It also utilizes the capabilities of the most common World Wide Web (WWW) browsers and word processing programs to provide writers, peer reviewers, teachers, and managers with four unique and effective software tools to aid in the production and review of technical and scientific documents.

    • Open Handbook creates a WWW browser window displaying Handbook entries. This window allows rapid and easy access to relevant information through hypertext links and personalized bookmarks, reducing the need to search through a table of contents or index.

    • Create Handbook Link allows a peer reviewer, an instructor, or a manager to insert in a writer's word processing document a hypertext link to an entry in the Handbook.

    • View Handbook Link allows a user to view the Handbook entries specified by the links that have been inserted in the word processing document.

    • Create Comment allows the insertion of an easily identifiable comment into the word processing document. Reviewers, instructors, and managers can use this function to insert advice within the text. Writers can also use this function to insert questions and concerns addressed to an instructor or peer reviewer.

    Getting Started

    If you are using Windows 3.1 or Windows 95, continue on to Chapter 2. If you are using a Macintosh, skip to Chapter 3.

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    Help: Appendix A

    Definition of terms

    HTML

    HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language. This language is used primarily to create pages to be displayed by a WWW browser. HTML is made up of a series of commands that define how the text will be displayed on screen. Similar to a word processor, HTML has code and commands that you use to make text bold or italicized. You can center text, create tables, and insert pictures and graphs. The most powerful feature of HTML is the ability to create hypertext links.

    Hypertext Link

    A hypertext link is a word, phrase, or picture from which the user can "jump" to a new address, which is specified in the HTML code. Unlike turning pages of a book and finding information in a linear fashion, using these links allows you to access information by "jumping" to the source immediately.

    Most hypertext links in text are colored and underlined. You can recognize a link by moving your cursor over it; the cursor will change visually--for instance, from an arrow to a pointing finger. Clicking on a link will cause the browser to display the new page.

    Reference Link

    This term is used throughout this documentation to specify a hypertext link that refers to a specific page of the Handbook. A reference link is a link which has been inserted into a word processing document and which refers to a page of the Handbook. For example, a reference link within your document may look like this: and uses your browser to open the Handbook to the page that begins the discussion of paragraphs.

    WWW Browser

    WWW is derived from Internet terminology and refers to the World Wide Web. A browser is simply an interface which allows you to access information in hypertext. Browsers are designed to be easy to use regardless of the user's computer knowledge and background. Because of its ease of use, the browser is a very logical interface through which to access the electronic version of the Mayfield Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    have/of

    Have is a verb. As an auxiliary verb, it often follows modal auxiliaries such as would, should and must.

    The rocket would have been sent up yesterday, but the weather was bad.

    Of is a preposition. It is almost always preceded by a noun or a main verb and followed by a noun phrase.

    The delay of the rocket firing was due to bad weather.

    In designing the rocket, the engineers thought of everything but the weather.

    Never use of after a modal auxiliary; use have.

    Unacceptable

    We must of made a mistake.

    Acceptable

    We must have made a mistake.

    Reference Link Text

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    Help: Appendix B

    Upgrading or Changing Your Word Processor or WWW Browser

    Windows Users

    1. Be sure that your new software (word processor or browser) has been installed.
    2. Reinstall the Mayfield Handbook, using the original setup disks, starting at Step 1 of the Installation Procedures.
    3. During re-installation, this program will search your hard disk and locate any and all word processors and WWW browsers that are compatible.
    4. In the first Handbook window, choose Modify Settings.
    5. In the windows that follow, be sure to make the appropriate selections based on your new software.
    6. Complete the installation.

    Macintosh Users

    1. Be sure that your new software (word processor or browser) has been installed.
    2. Open the Mayfield Handbooks folder (installed by default at the root of the startup hard drive.)
    3. Double-click on Configure Mayfield.
    4. Select your new word processor or browser by the following method:
      5. Click the Browse button in the right of the appropriate pane of the Configure Mayfield window.
      Navigate to the appropriate word processor or browser.
      Highlight the word processor or browser's name and click Open. Notice that the appropriate icon is shown in the Configure Mayfield window.
    5. Click the box in the upper left-hand corner, or choose Quit.
    6. Click Save.

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    Help: Appendix C

    Error Messages and Troubleshooting

    This appendix lists the error messages and other possible software problems you might encounter and provides specific troubleshooting procedures. The appendix is organized into the following sections (except for general errors, which are organized by function):

    General Error Conditions
    Open Handbook
    Create Handbook Link
    View Handbook Link
    Create Comment

    Error titles are in bold, followed by the error message text in italics. The platform(s) on which the error occurs is indicated for each error. For example:

    Title of error (Windows / Macintosh)

    Error message . . .
    Information . . .
    Action / tips . . .

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    Help: Appendix D

    List of Installed Files for Macintosh

    In all of the following, if the file or folder already exists, it will be updated to our version, and update only if our version is newer.

    At root of startup drive:

    • Mayfield Handbooks folder
    Note: The user can choose to install this anywhere. This is the only location choice for installation the user gets.

    In the Mayfield Handbooks folder:

    • Configure Mayfield application for setting user preferences
    • Technical Writing Handbook folder
    In the Technical Writing Handbook folder:
    • Top Links (Microsoft Word 5)
    • Top Links (Microsoft Word 6)
    • Top Links (WordPerfect)
    Note: the above files are all (editable) word processing document files in the formats indicated by the file names.
    • Handbook folder
    Note: This folder and its contents get installed only if the user chooses the Easy (Full) installation option.

    In the Handbook folder:

    • 725 htm, gif and jpeg files
    • homenn.htm, a renamed copy of home.htm, with the MHT&SW icon, set to launch Netscape when double-clicked
    • homeir.htm, a renamed copy of home.htm, with the MHT&SW icon, set to launch Internet Explorer when double-clicked
    • Mayfield.lnk, the file used by the View and Create applets to map reference link text to the actual html files
    In System Folder:Preferences folder:
    • Mayfield Preferences folder
    • KeyQuencer Preferences folder
    In System Folder:Preferences:Mayfield Preferences folder:
    • Mayfield prefs, the prefs file used by the applets to know preferred browser, word processor, and path to HTML files of the Handbook
    • Open Handbook AppleScript applet, a small run-only AS application invoked by the Open Handbook macro
    • Create Comment AppleScript applet, a small run-only AS application invoked by the Create Comment macro
    • Create Handbook Link AppleScript applet. a small run-only AS application invoked by the Create Handbook Link macro
    • View Handbook Link AppleScript applet. a small run-only AS application invoked by the View Handbook Link macro
    • GetUserPrefs, a run-only AS script called by the other scripts (called only if the user has changed his preferences using Configure Mayfield application)
    In System Folder:Preferences:KeyQuencer Preferences folder:
    • KeyQuencer Macros, a KQ suitcase file containing the 4 Mayfield macros, with their key combination assignements
    Note: If a file by this name exists, it will be renamed to "KeyQuencer Macros Copy" so the user can re-integrate his own macros.

    In System Folder:Extensions folder:

    • KeyQuencer Engine
    In System Folder:
    • KeyQuencer Extensions folder
    Note: To maintain compatability with users who already have KQ, we install our few pieces we use in the hierarchy used by the standard KQ installation. That hierarchy is as follows:
      Automation folder
      Drag file
      Key file
      Window file
    Clipboard Folder
      Clipbaoard file
    Conditionals folder
      WaitApp file
      WaitUpdates file
      WaitWindow file
    Processes folder
      Open file
    Special folder
      Repeat file
    Utilities folder
      Message file
    Note: all of the above files are the KQ files to carry out the commands used by the Mayfield macros.

    In System Folder:Extensions:Scripting Additions:

    • Jon's Commands

    • KeyQuencer Links

    • Find Link

    • Process Is Running
    Note: the above 4 files are all scripting additions that extend the AppleScript language and are all used by the applets installed in the Mayfield Preferences folder.

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    Help: Appendix D

    List of Installed Files for Windows 3.1

    In folder ..\Programf\Mayfield\TechBook\ of startup drive:
    • "Handbook" directory containing all HTML files, graphic files, and the "handbook.ind" map file.
    • "TopLinks.doc" and/or "TopLinks.wpd" files for use with Microsoft Word and WordPerfect word processors, respectively.
    In folder ..\WinWord\Startup\:
    • "Mayfield.dot" template file for Microsoft Word 6.0
    Note: The location of this path may vary depending on whether MS Office is also installed.

    In folder for WordPerfect Additional Objects Template:

    • "Mayfield.wpt" template file for Corel WordPerfect 6.0
    Note: The location of this file is user determined.

    In folder Windows of startup drive:

    • "Mayfield.grp" Program group containing a shortcut to the Handbook and a shortcut to the uninstall program.
    • "uninst16.exe" uninstallation program for removing the Handbook.
    At the root of startup drive:
    • "deisl*.isu" uninstall log file for use by the uninstallation program.
    • "Mayfield.ini" file for storing file location and preference information.
    Note: if files/folders do not exist, they are created.

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    Help: Appendix D

    List of Installed Files for Windows 95

    In folder ..\Program Files\Mayfield\TechBook\ of startup drive:
    • "Handbook" directory containing all HTML files, graphic files, and the "handbook.ind" map file.
    • "TopLinks.doc" and/or "TopLinks.wpd" files for use with Microsoft Word and WordPerfect word processors, respectively.
    In folder ..\WinWord\Startup\:
    • "Mayfield.dot" template file for Microsoft Word 7.0
    Note: The location of this path may vary depending on whether MS Office is also installed.

    In folder ..\WPWin7\Templates\:

    • "Mayfield.wpt" template file for Corel WordPerfect 7.0
      • Note: The location of this path may vary depending on whether Corel Office is also installed.
    In folder Windows\Start Menu\Programs\:
    • "Mayfield Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing" shortcut to the Handbook.
    In folder Windows of startup drive:
    • "uninst.exe" uninstallation program for use by theAdd/Remove Programs control panel.
    At the root of startup drive:
    • "deisl*.isu" uninstall log file for use by the uninstallation program.
    In addition, a Mayfield registry key is created or updated.

    Note: if files/folders do not exist, they are created.

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    Help: Appendix D

    List of Files after Installation

    This appendix gives a complete listing of all of the files that are found on your computer after installing The Mayfield Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing.

    List of Installed Files for Windows 95
    List of Installed Files for Windows 3.1
    List of Installed Files for Macintosh

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    hear/listen

    Hear requires no attention or focus from the person doing the hearing. It takes a direct object. Listen requires conscious effort on the part of the listener. An object of listen, if expressed, must be preceded by a preposition (usually to or for).

    We heard the hum of the machinery.

    We listened to the hum of the machinery.

    We listened for the hum of the machinery.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    hopefully

    Hopefully means "in a hopeful manner." Many readers frown on its use to mean "I hope" or "it is hoped."

    Weak

    Hopefully the rocket will lift off as planned.

    Improved

    We hope that the rocket will lift off as planned.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    imply/infer

    To imply something is to hint at or suggest it. To infer something is to reach some conclusion from evidence.

    Her tone implied doubt.

    The client inferred from the quality of the work that the project had been completed at the last minute.

    Reference Link Text

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--A

    a/an. See also indefinite articles.
    a lot/alot
    abbreviations abstract language
    abstracts accept/except
    acceptance letters
    accuracy
    accurate labeling of graphics
    accusative (objective) case
    acetate overheads
    acknowledging sources. See also documentation styles.
    acknowledgments acronyms action verbs (for resumes and job application letters)
    active voice. See also voice.
    activities (listing in resumes)
    adapt/adopt
    addresses adjective clauses adjectives adverbial clauses. See also introductory commas.
    adverbs advice/advise
    affect/effect/impact
    ageist language
    agenda
    agreement aim. See also introduction.
    all ready/already
    all together/altogether
    alot/a lot
    alternate/alternative
    ambiguous comparisons
    American Psychological Association (APA) documentation style among/between
    amount/number
    ampersands (in APA in-text citations).
    analogy (paragraph development)
    analysis (paragraph development)
    anonymous works, citing. See also bibliographies. antecedents of pronouns. See also pronoun-antecedent agreement.
    anthologies, citing anxious/eager
    any- words any body/anybody
    any more/anymore
    any one/anyone
    APA. See American Psychological Association.
    apostrophes apparatus. See also working drawings and schematic diagrams.
    appearance of document
    application letters. See also letters.
    appositive phrases appropriateness
    arrangement articles (grammatical) articles (in journals and magazines) as . . . as/so . . . as
    assume/presume
    assure/ensure/insure
    astronomy style guides
    attitude (of audience)
    attitude adverbs
    attribution of ideas. See citation styles.
    audience author's name included in text (citations) authorization
    auxiliary verbs. See also modal auxiliaries.
    awhile/a while
    awkwardness

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--B

    back matter
    background
    bad/badly
    balance bar graphs base form (verbs) be be going to (future tense)
    because/since
    because of/due to
    beginning a sentence beginning a document. See planning a document and introductions.
    between/among
    biased language bibliographies biology style guides
    blackboards (use of in oral presentations)
    block format for letters
    body (of document) books (citing) borrowed words, italicizing
    boxhead
    brevity. See conciseness.
    British spelling
    bullets
    business writing by-phrases

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--C

    can/may
    capitalization captions
    case cause and effect (paragraph development)
    caution messages
    CD-ROMs, citing censor/censure
    central idea. See main idea.
    cf.
    chalkboards (use of during oral presentations)
    charts checklist for revising and editing documents
    chemical formulas chemistry style guides
    Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) note citations chromosome abberations, commas with
    chunking
    circle graphs
    citation-sequence system of documentation citation styles citing electronic sources clarity classification and division (paragraph development)
    clauses clearness. See clarity.
    closings. See conclusions.
    CMS . See Chicago Manual of Style.
    coherence collaborative writing. See also reviewing a document.
    collective antecedents
    collective nouns (subject-verb agreement)
    colons come/go
    commands (imperative mood). See also imperative sentences.
    commas common knowledge
    common nouns
    comparison and contrast (paragraph development)
    comparisons comparative adjectives
    comparative adverbs
    complement/compliment
    complements (grammatical) complete comparisons.
    complete sentences
    complimentary closing (letters)
    compose/comprise
    compound computer software . See software.
    conciseness conclusions concrete words.
    concur in/concur with
    conference proceedings, citing conjunctions conjunctive adverbs
    consulting reports
    content guidelines for bibliographic entries contents, table of (as front matter)
    continual/continuous
    contractions, apostrophes with
    contrary-to-fact conditions
    conversations, citing coordinate modifiers, commas with
    coordinating conjunctions
    copying source language
    corporate authors, citing. See organizational authors.
    correlative conjunctions
    correcting documents Council of Biology Editors (CBE) documentation style countable nouns. See also countable and uncountable nouns.
    cover page credibility, establishing
    crediting sources
    criterion/criteria
    curriculum vitae. See résumés.

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--D

    danger warnings
    dangling modifiers
    dashes databases, citing dates datum/data
    decimal points. See also periods.
    declarative sentences
    defense (thesis)
    definite articles. See also articles. definition (paragraph development)
    delivery (oral presentations)
    demonstrative adjectives demonstrative pronouns density (pace)
    dependent clauses describe/say/tell
    description (paragraph development)
    descriptive abstracts
    descriptive words
    design and feasibility reports
    design criteria
    detail, level of
    desk dictionaries
    determiners development of paragraphs
    diagrams dictionaries different from/different than
    digital overheads
    dilemma/problem
    direct objects. See also pronoun case.
    directions discussion section
    disinterested/uninterested
    dissertations (citing) dividing words
    document density
    document design
    document purpose
    documentation (manuals), writing documentation styles. documents, types of dots, spaced (ellipsis points)
    double negatives
    drafting a technical document
    drawings. See also working drawings and graphs and figures.
    due to/because of

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--E

    e.g.
    each (subject-verb agreement)
    each other/one another. See also reciprocal pronouns.
    eager/anxious
    economy of words. See conciseness.
    edited books, citing editing for grammar and style
    editorial review
    educational history (in résumés)
    effect, cause and (paragraph development)
    effect/affect/impact
    either
    electrical engineering style guides
    electronic documents (writing) electronic mail (e-mail)
    electronic sources (citing). See citing electronic sources.
    elements in a series, commas with
    elements of technical documents ellipsis points emphasis emphatic pronouns
    employment search. See job search.
    enclosure notations
    end matter end notations
    end punctuation endings. See conclusions.
    endnotes English as a Second Language (ESL) dictionaries
    ensure/assure
    enumerating (mechanics of) enumeration (paragraph development method)
    equations equipment ESL dictionaries
    establishing credibility
    et al.
    etc.
    ethical issues
    ethnically biased language
    European standards for formation of numbers
    every (subject-verb agreement)
    every body/everybody
    every one/everyone
    exactness examples (as paragraph development method)
    except/accept
    excess words exclamation marks executive summaries
    exemplification (paragraph development)
    experience (in résumés)
    expertise, levels of. See levels of expertise.
    experts, writing for
    expletives (subject-verb agreement with)
    exploded views
    eye contact

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--F

    facilitate
    factorial symbol
    farther/further
    faults, comma faulty comparisons faulty parallelism. See parallelism.
    feasibility reports
    fewer/less. See also countable and uncountable nouns.
    figures. See graphs and figures.
    File Transfer Protocol (FTP) archives, citing. See FTP archives, citing.
    find/find out/know
    finite verbs
    first person (grammatical). See also inappropriate shifts in person.
    flaunt/flout
    flipcharts (in oral presentations)
    flowcharts
    focus
    footnotes fonts
    forecasting
    foreword/forward
    formal format. See also elements of technical documents. former/latter
    fractions, spelling out
    fragments, sentence. See also dependent clauses, predicates, and subjects.
    front matter FTP archives, citing full stop. See periods.
    fused (run-on) sentences
    future perfect tense
    future tense

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--I

    i.e.
    ibid. See also guidelines for CMS note citation.
    IEEE style of documentation. See Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
    illustrations
    imagined conditions
    impact/affect/effect
    imperative imply/infer
    importance, relative. See emphasis.
    important information in main clause. See also emphasis.
    inappropriate shifts. See shifts, inappropriate.
    incomplete comparisons
    incomplete sentences (sentence fragments)
    inconsistency indefinite articles. See also articles. indefinite pronouns indentation independent clauses indexes, as end matter
    indicative mood
    indirect objects
    indirect questions, punctuation of
    infer/imply
    infinitives informal informative abstracts
    inquiry letters. See also letters.
    inserting text in quotations
    inside (recipient's) address, in letters
    Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers citation-sequence style institutional author, citing. See organizational author, citing.
    instructions, writing. See also task-oriented documents. insure/assure/ensure
    integrating graphics and text
    intellectual property rights. See also legal and ethical issues.
    in-text citations intensive pronouns
    intention. See purpose.
    interjections, dashes with
    international standards for numbers
    Internet addresses. See citing electronic sources.
    Internet sources, citing. See citing electronic sources.
    interface/interphase
    interoffice memorandums. See memorandums.
    interrogative pronouns
    interrogative sentences interrupted sentence structure (misplaced modifiers)
    interviews, citing. See personal communication, citing.
    intransitive verbs. See also voice and transitive and intransitive verbs.
    introduction introductory elements, commas with
    inverted word order. See also ordinary word order.
    irregardless/regardless/irrespective
    irregular verbs. See also modal auxiliaries.
    italics (underlining) items in a series, commas to separate
    its/it's

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--L

    laboratory notebooks
    laboratory reports
    lack of parallelism. See parallelism.
    language later/latter
    latest/last
    latter/former
    lay/lie
    layout laypersons, writing for
    legal and ethical issues legends (graphics)
    length less/fewer
    letters (citing). See personal communication, citing.
    letters (of the alphabet) letters (writing) levels of expertise (audience) lie/lay
    like
    line graphs line spacing linking ideas listen/hear
    lists literary present (verb tense)
    literature reviews
    location. See placement.
    look/see
    lowercase letters. See capital letters.

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--M

    magazine articles, citing. See journal articles, citing.
    main clause. See also independent clauses.
    main idea maintaining eye contact (oral presentations)
    management requirements (in proposals)
    managerial review
    managers, writing for
    manner adverbs
    manuals (writing documentation). See also task-oriented documents.
    manuscript form maps, guides for using
    margins
    mass nouns. See also countable and uncountable nouns. materials and apparatus, discussion of
    mathematics style guides
    may/can
    measurement, units of (abbreviations for)
    mechanics media/medium
    medicine style guides
    meetings memorandums meteorology style guides
    minutes
    misplaced modifiers missing subject or predicate
    misspelled words
    mixed audiences
    MLA style of documentation. See Modern Language Association.
    modal auxiliaries. See also auxiliary verbs.
    Modern Language Association (MLA) author-page style modified block format for letters
    modifiers. See also adjectives and adverbs. mood Mr., Mrs., Ms. multiple bar graphs
    multiple line graphs
    myself

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--N

    narration (method of paragraph development)
    negatives, double
    neither/none
    newspaper articles, citing nominalizations
    nominative case
    noncount nouns. See also countable and uncountable nouns.
    none/neither
    nonessential clauses. See restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers.
    nonfinite verbs nonrestrictive elements nonsexist language
    notations (in letters)
    note citations (CMS)
    note list (CMS)
    note numbers, placement of notebooks
    notes, taking noun clauses noun phrases
    noun strings
    noun substitutes. See pronouns.
    nouns number (grammatical) number/amount
    numbered list of references numbering graphics
    numbering systems numbers

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--P

    p./pp. pace (density) of document
    page format page numbers paired (correlative) conjunctions
    paragraph coherence
    paragraph development paragraphs parallellism paraphrase parentheses parenthetic elements, commas with
    participles parts of sentences parts of speech passive (voice) past participle
    past perfect tense
    past tense
    percent/per cent/percentage. See also numbers.
    peer review perfect periodicals, citing. See journal articles.
    periods person (grammatical) personal communication and other "nonrecoverable" information personal pronouns. See also pronouns, pronoun case, and sexist language.
    phenomenon/phenomena
    photographs
    phrases physics style guides
    pie graphs
    placement of commas with other punctuation.
    placement of note numbers placement of parenthetical citations placement of superscript notes (CMS style of documentation)
    plagiarism. See also acknowledging sources. plain language
    planning and producing documents pluperfect
    plurals. See also subject-verb agreement. possession. See also pronoun case. possessive case. See also possession and apostrophes.
    predicates prefixes
    preparing viewgraphs
    prepositional phrases prepositions present participle. See also gerunds.
    present perfect tense
    present tense. See also subject-verb agreement.
    presentations, oral. See oral presentations.
    press releases
    presume/assume
    principal/principle
    principal parts of verb (verb forms)
    problem/dilemma
    problem statement
    procedure section
    procedures, writing. See also task-oriented documents.
    proceedings, citing. See journal articles, citing.
    process (method of paragraph development)
    professional or job objective (résumé heading)
    progress reports
    progressive form of verbs
    pronoun-antecedent agreement
    pronoun reference pronouns proofreading proper nouns proposals public speaking. See oral presentations.
    publication information in reference entries punctuation purpose. See also purpose (in introductions).

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--R

    racist language
    raise/rise
    readability readers. See audience.
    recipient's address (inside address) in letters
    reciprocal pronouns
    recommendation letters recommendations section of document
    records and record keeping redundant words
    reference, pronoun reference list references reflexive pronouns
    regardless/irregardless/irrespective
    rehearsing oral presentations
    relative (adjective) clauses releases, press
    repetition, unnecessary
    repetition of key words
    reported speech
    reports requesting a letter of recommendation
    requesting a peer review
    research resources, for writers
    respectfully/respectively
    restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers results section
    résumés reversed word order. See also word order.
    reviewing a document revising rise/raise
    root form of verbs. See infinitives.
    rough draft
    run-on (fused) sentences

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    Index: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

    Index--S

    safety elements in procedures
    salutation (greeting) in letters
    say/describe/tell
    schematic diagrams
    scientific abbreviations. See also technical terms and list of terms.
    scientific writing style guides
    scope
    second person (grammatical)
    sections and subsections (chunks)
    see/look
    self-referential pronouns
    semicolons sender's address in letters
    sentence fragments
    sentence types sentences sequence of tenses
    series, commas in
    sexist language
    shall/will
    shifts, inappropriate simple past
    simple present
    simple sentences
    since/because
    single bar graphs
    single line graphs
    single quotation marks
    singular/plural. See number (grammatical).
    slides. See also overheads and other display media (for oral presentations).
    so . . . as/as . . . as
    so/very
    software, citing. See citing electronic sources.
    somebody/some body
    someone/some one
    sometime/some time
    sources spacing. See line spacing.
    specialized dictionaries species names
    specific language
    specifications. See also task-oriented documents.
    speeches, giving. See oral presentations.
    spelling split infinitives. See also interrupted sentence structure.
    stacked bar graphs
    stacked modifiers
    statement of objective
    statement of problem
    stationary/stationery
    stringy sentences
    strong verbs stub
    style. See also appropriateness and document density.
    style, documentation. See documentation styles.
    style guides style manuals. See style guides.
    style of speech (oral presentations)
    subheadings. See also subject headings.
    subject-verb agreement subject headings. See also headings and subheadings.
    subject line subject missing
    subjects subjective case
    subjunctive mood
    subordinate clauses
    subordinate elements, commas with
    subordinating conjunctions
    subsections
    suffixes
    summary of others' ideas
    superfluous commas
    superlative adjectives
    superlative adverbs
    suspended hyphens
    syllabification
    symbols syntax. See grammar.

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    Index--T

    table of contents (writing)
    tables tabs. See indentation.
    taking notes. See notes, taking.
    task-oriented documents technical approach (in proposals)
    technical dictionaries
    technical reports, citing technical review
    technical style guides technical terms technicians, writing for
    telephone conversations, citing. See personal communication.
    tell/describe/say
    tense terms, technical. See technical terms.
    than/then
    that/which/who
    the. See definite articles.
    their/there/they're
    theory
    there (subject-verb agreement)
    theses, citing theses, writing thesis (main idea of document) third person (grammatical)
    three dots (ellipses)
    time adverbs
    time expressions timetables (Gantt charts). See also work plan.
    titles to to/too/two
    topic sentences
    toward/towards
    transitional devices transitive and intransitive verbs translations, citing transmittal letters
    trip reports
    Turabian, Kate
    two/to/too
    typefaces

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    interface/interphase

    Interface is a verb or a noun referring to the coordination of two or more items or systems.

    In order to streamline our system, we needed to interface our separate databases. [verb]

    Suzanne is studying the interface between the computer and the user. [noun]

    Do not use the term interface in more general senses--as, for example, a synonym for meet.

    Interphase combines the prefix inter-, meaning "between", with the base phase, meaning "stage"; thus, an interphase would be an intermediate stage or step. However, this word is seldom used.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    its/it's

    Its is a possessive pronoun. It's is a contraction of it is.

    It's important that the university live up to its public relations image.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    later/latter

    Later refers to time. Latter means the second of two groups or things referred to. See also former/latter.

    At yesterday's meeting the engineer responsible for project design spoke first; the project manager spoke later.

    Between cosmology and astronomy, I prefer the latter.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    latest/last

    Latest refers to the most recent element in a chronological series, making it similar in meaning to newest. It is also the superlative form of the adjective late. Last refers to the final elements in any series. After the last element, there will be no more.

    The finance department recently updated their computer systems and installed all the latest equipment.

    Release 2.0 of the program was late. Release 3.2 was even later. But release 1.01 was the latest of all.

    After this last release, there will be no more versions of the software.

    The release will be the last.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    lay/lie

    Lay is a transitive verb that means "to place or put." Lie is an intransitive verb meaning "to rest on a surface". Both verbs are irregular.

    Now I always lay my glasses next to my computer. [present tense]

    My glasses always lie next to my computer. [present tense]

    Twice last week I laid my glasses on the laboratory bench. [past tense]

    Twice last week my glasses lay on the laboratory bench. [past tense]

    I forgot where I had laid my glasses. [past participle]

    I found that my glasses had lain on the laboratory bench all day. [past participle]

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    like

    Like can be used as a verb or a preposition.

    We like the proposal. [verb]

    Lenticular clouds can look like flying saucers. [preposition]

    Do not use like as an adjective, an interjection, or a conjunction.

    Weak

    We put like 15 drops of the compound into the fuel mixture. [adjective]

    Improved

    We put about 15 drops of the compound into the fuel mixture.

    Weak

    They said, like, they would arrive at 9 for the meeting. [interjection]

    Improved

    They said they would arrive at 9 for the meeting.

    Weak

    We feel like the consultant is ignoring our concerns. [conjunction]

    Improved

    We feel that the consultant is ignoring our concerns.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    see/look

    See requires no attention or focus from the person doing the seeing. It takes a direct object without a preposition. Look requires conscious effort on the part of the person doing the looking. An object of look, if expressed, must be preceded by a preposition (usually at, over, or for).

    We saw the prototype of the new robot standing in a corner of the office.

    After watching the promotional video, we looked at the prototype of the new robot.

    We studied the specifications carefully, then looked over the prototype of the new robot.

    We looked for the prototype of the new robot in the promotional video but could not find it.

    See also hear/listen.

    Reference Link Text

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    Help: 3.6

    Making an Alias

    You can create an alias to the home page of the Handbook for your desktop.
    1. Go to the "Mayfield Handbooks:Technical & Scientific Writing:Handbook" folder.
    2. If you are using Netscape Navigator, locate the file "homenn.htm"; select this file and create an alias.
    3. If you are using Microsoft Internet Explorer, locate the file "homeie.htm"; select this file and create an alias.
    4. Move this icon anywhere it is convenient for you. Double-clicking the alias icon will launch your browser and open the title page of the Handbook.
    Note for KeyQuencer Users: The Handbook consists of HTML files, various AppleScript scripts, and a macro engine called KeyQuencer which allows you to play the scripts with a specific key combination. If you already have the full version of KeyQuencer installed on your system, any macros you have created will be replaced (but not deleted) by the macros needed to access the Handbook.

    Your macros will be saved in a KeyQuencer suitcase file named "KeyQuencer Macros Copy" in the "System Folder:Preferences:KeyQuencer Preferences" folder. To reinstall them, launch the KeyQuencer Editor (not installed by the Mayfield software) and choose Import Suitcase from the File menu. Locate the Saved KeyQuencer Macros suitcase, and click the Open button. Note that the Mayfield macros' key combinations will override those from the imported suitcase, so you may have to reassign keys to your saved macros.

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    Help: 3.4

    Configure Mayfield Application

    1. Complete the standard installation.
    2. Notice a new window entitled "Mayfield Handbooks" on your screen (if it is not an open window in Macintosh Finder, open the "Mayfield Handbooks" folder).
    3. Double-click the Configure Mayfield icon.
    4. Select your word processor and your browser by the following method:
      5. Click the Browse button in the appropriate pane of the Configure Mayfield window.
      Navigate to the appropriate application.
      Highlight the application name, and click Open. Notice that the appropriate icon is shown in the Configure Mayfield window.
    5. Click the Browse button in the Handbook folder pane. The Handbook files will have been installed by default into the following folder:
      6. HD:Mayfield Handbooks:Technical Writing Handbook:Handbook
    6. If you chose a different location during installation, the files will still be in the Handbook folder in a path similar to the default. Navigate to and select the Handbook folder.
    7. Click the box in the upper left-hand corner, or choose Quit.
    8. Click Save.

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    Help: 3.3

    Installation for Macintosh

    From Floppy Disks

    1. Insert Disk 1 into your floppy drive.
    2. Double-click Install Technical Handbook.
    3. Follow the instructions on screen.
    4. When installation is complete, click Restart.
    5. Run Configure Mayfield (see below.)
    6. See "Installation Details" (below) if necessary.

    From CD-ROM

    1. Insert CD into your CD-ROM drive.
    2. Open the MacOS folder.
    3. Double-click Install Technical Handbook.
    4. Follow the instructions on screen.
    5. When installation is complete, click Restart.
    6. Run Configure Mayfield (see below).
    7. See "Installation Details" (below) if necessary.

    Installation Details

    The Read Me file will not be saved on your hard disk unless you specify to do so.

    You have two options for installation:

    1. Easy Install. This is a complete installation of the software, requiring approximately 3.5 megabytes of hard disk space. Performance will be somewhat better if you access the Handbook from the hard disk. However, if you need to save hard disk space and can access the Handbook from your CD-ROM drive, then choose Custom Install.

    2. Custom Install
      3. Full Install (Tools and Data). This option will have the same results as the "Easy Install" described above.

      Minimum Install (Tools Only). This option installs all the software except the HTML files and uses only 1.0 megabyte of hard disk space. If you choose this option, you will need to access the Handbook from your CD-ROM drive.

    Notice the Install Location pane in the lower left portion of the installer window. The location you choose will determine where the "Mayfield Handbooks" folder is installed. The default is to install this folder at the root of the startup hard drive.

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    Help: 3.5

    Shortcut Key Combinations

    Open Handbook Command + Option + H (memory aid: *H*andbook)
    Create Handbook Link Command + Option + G (memory aid: *G*lue link)
    View Handbook Link Command + Option + J (memory aid: *J*ump to link)
    Create Comment Command + Option + K (memory aid: *K*omment)

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    Help: 3.1

    System Requirements

    To use the electronic version of The Mayfield Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing for the Macintosh, you need the following:
    • The master software disks (CD-ROM disk or two 3.5" floppy disks).
    • A Macintosh 68020 (or better) or Power Macintosh with one floppy disk drive (or CD-ROM drive) and a hard disk drive.
    • Macintosh system software version 7.1 or later, with AppleScript 1.1 (or later) installed. (NOTE: AppleScript is automatically installed with systems 7.5 and later.)
    • Sufficient random access memory (RAM) to run your word processor and browser at the same time. The exact amount of required RAM will vary in different word processor and browser configurations. If you do not have sufficient RAM, when you try to open your browser and word processor, you may get a memory error message from your operating system.
    • At least 1.0 megabyte of hard disk space (4.0 megabytes if all the Handbook files are to be stored on the hard disk).
    • A Macintosh mouse or compatible pointing device.
    • CD-ROM drive (required if installing from a CD-ROM disk).

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    Help: 3.2

    Required Software

    You will need the following software installed on your computer before installing and using the Handbook.
    • One of the following word processors
    Microsoft Word version 6.0
    Microsoft Word version 5.1
    Corel WordPerfect version 3.5

  • One of the following WWW browsers
    • Microsoft Internet Explorer 2.1
    Netscape Navigator 2.0 or 3.0

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    medium/media

    The singular noun is medium; it takes a singular verb. The plural form is media; it takes a plural verb.

    When Terry was deciding where to publish her paper, she was surprised to discover how rapidly the medium of the World Wide Web is expanding in her field.

    The media we used in our project include images, video, and sound.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    myself

    Myself is a reflexive pronoun.

    I recognized myself in a photograph in the latest newsletter.

    Like other reflexive pronouns, myself can be used as an intensifier. However, in technical writing you should use emphatic pronouns very sparingly or avoid them altogether.

    Weak

    I myself don't see any problems with the proposal.

    Improved

    I don't see any problems with the proposal.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    neither/none

    Use neither when referring to two items. Use none when referring to more than two items or to an uncountable noun.

    Neither of the two candidates is very impressive.

    None of the four candidates impresses us.

    None of the equipment impresses us.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    percent/per cent/percentage

    Use the symbol % to express percent in scientific and technical writing, except when writing numbers at the beginning of a sentence. When you write out the word, use the form percent instead of the older form per cent.

    Only 3% of the systems crashed during the test period.

    Three percent of the systems crashed during the test period.

    In nontechnical writing, use the word percent rather than the symbol %.

    The population has increased 1.42 percent during the past ten years.

    The word percentage refers to a general result or portion.

    The percentage of system failures was below the limit set for the prototype.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    phenomenon/phenomena

    Phenomena is the plural of phenomenon, an observable event.

    A total eclipse of the sun is an impressive phenomenon.

    Of all the celestial phenomena, a total eclipse of the sun is the most impressive.

    See also criterion/criteria.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    principal/principle

    Principal is usually an adjective meaning "main," but it may also be a noun indicating the individual who runs a school, a key person in a business enterprise, or a deposit that draws interest. Principle is a noun meaning "a generalization or law."

    The principal goal of this theoretical study is to determine the principles of friction and unrestrained expansion that make processes irreversible.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    quotation/quote

    Quote is a verb meaning "to repeat or copy the words of another." Quotation is a noun that means a "passage quoted."

    The results of the experiment were so impressive that the researchers were soon quoted on their work in the daily press.

    His thesis contains many quotations.

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    Cover Page ofThe Mayfield Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing
    Table of ContentsWriting TimelineIndexHelpCredits

    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    raise/rise

    Raise always requires an object (raise taxes), whereas rise never has an object (heat rises). Rise is an irregular verb, but raise is regular.

    The government may raise the level of permissible exposure to this chemical.

    The permissible exposure rate for the workers in this facility rises by 15% this year.

    See also lay/lie.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    irregardless/regardless/irrespective

    Do not use irregardless. Use regardless or irrespective instead.

    Unacceptable

    Irregardless of the obstacles, we must find a way to determine the precise amount of carbon dioxide in the sample.

    Acceptable

    Regardless of the obstacles, we must find a way to determine the precise amount of carbon dioxide in the sample.

    Acceptable

    Irrespective of the obstacles, we must find a way to determine the precise amount of carbon dioxide in the sample.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    respectfully/respective/respectively

    Respectfully means "with respect or deference." Respective, an adjective, means "relating to two or more things considered one by one." Respectively, the adverb form of respective, means "singly, in the order mentioned."

    All people should be treated respectfully at work.

    The three project team members made their respective presentations.

    The first, second, and third elements identified in the sample were oxygen, fluorine, and hydrogen, respectively.

    Respective and respectively can often be omitted without loss of clarity.

    The three project team members made their [respective] presentations.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    shall/will

    Although traditionally shall was used to express the future tense with I and we, will is now generally accepted with all persons. Shall is commonly used today only in certain legal documents, in questions requesting an opinion or a preference rather than a prediction (compare "Shall we go?", and "Will we go?") and in statements expressing determination ("I shall return").

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    so/very

    As an adverb, so is associated with the conjunction that and means "enough." Very means "extremely."

    The moon is so close to the earth that its gravitational effects are readily observable through the tides of the oceans.

    Surface temperatures on Mercury are very hot.

    Do not use so to mean extremely. Use very.

    Weak

    Mercury is so close to the sun.

    Improved

    Mercury is very close to the sun.

    The word very can often be omitted, and when it can be it should be.

    Mecury is close to the sun.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    somebody/some body

    Somebody is an indefinite pronoun referring to a certain unspecified person. Some body is a noun phrase referring to a certain unspecified body.

    When I went into the laboratory, I saw somebody wearing a respirator.

    When I went to the morgue, I saw some body being delivered.

    See also anybody/any body.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    someone/some one

    Someone refers to an unspecified member of a group of people. Some one refers to an unspecified member of a group of items or people that is being selected for individual attention.

    Someone arrived at the meeting late.

    We know that some one of the new robots has a defect, but we're not sure which.

    In the latter usage, some can often be omitted without loss of clarity.

    We know that one of the robots has a defect, but we're not sure which.

    See also anyone/any one and everyone/every one.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    some time/sometime/sometimes

    Some time means "a length of time." Sometime means "at a time that either is not specified or is not even known." Sometimes means "occasionally (at unspecified times)."

    The engineers had to wait some time before the system finally completed its diagnostic routines.

    Astronauts will return to the Moon sometime.

    The gas chromatograph works well sometimes, but other times it doesn't work at all.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    stationary/stationery

    Stationary is an adjective meaning "motionless." Stationery is a noun meaning "a type of writing paper."

    In order to get an accurate image, the patient must remain stationary throughout the CAT scan.

    We need to order more letterhead stationery because there is very little left in the supply cabinet.

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    Education Programs

    Undergraduate Programs

    Explore the journey designed to prepare future innovators, engineers, and industry leaders in Materials Science and Engineering

    About Our Undergraduates

    The undergraduate program at DMSE offers students a strong foundation in Materials Science and Engineering principles, while also exposing them to cutting-edge research and real-world applications. Our students are trained to think critically, solve complex engineering problems, and contribute to advancing technology across multiple industries.

    Opportunities for Undergraduates

    Research Projects

    Research Projects

    Students engage in industry-linked and faculty-led research projects, fostering innovation and practical skills.

    Internships

    Industrial Training

    Industrial placements provide students with hands-on experience in leading organizations across materials, manufacturing, and technology sectors.

    Global Exposure

    Global Exposure

    Participating in foreign industrial and graduate talks (NexusWave), as well as international conferences, gives undergraduates a platform to network and collaborate globally.

    Curriculum Overview

    The curriculum includes five specialized focus areas and comprehensive core modules

    ➤ Specialized Focus Areas

    • Polymer Engineering
    • Electronic Materials Engineering
    • Biomaterials Engineering
    • Construction Materials Engineering
    • Energy Materials Engineering

    ➤ Major Core Modules

    • Polymer Science and Technology
    • Ferrous Metallurgy
    • Mechanical Behaviour of Materials
    • Polymer Engineering
    • Ceramic Engineering
    • Characterization of Materials
    • Industrial Metallurgy
    • Selection of Materials and Failure Analysis

    Undergraduate Life at DMSE

    Life as a DMSE undergraduate is vibrant and dynamic. Beyond academics, students actively participate in student societies, sports, cultural activities, and leadership opportunities. This holistic environment ensures personal growth, teamwork, and the development of leadership skills essential for future success.

    DMSE Handbook 2025

    Download the official Department of Materials Science and Engineering handbook for comprehensive program details, course descriptions, and academic guidelines.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    than/then

    Than is a conjunction used to express contrast. Then is an adverb expressing a time relationship.

    Sample A is 15kg heavier than Sample B.

    The temperature rises, and then the valve automatically opens.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    that/which/who

    In general, who refers to people, and that and which refer to animals and things. That may also be used to refer to an anonymous group of people ("I want to contribute to a group that saves dolphins").

    Professor Thomas, who has taught at the university for forty years, is also a ranger at the local state park.

    The whale that swam into the bay was successfully returned to the ocean.

    The plane, which flew at an altitude of 30,000 feet, arrived in only 7 hours.

    That is used only with restrictive clauses, and which can be used with either restrictive or nonrestrictive clauses, although some writers prefer to use it only with nonrestrictive elements.

    A factory that does not take care of its waste stream may violate environmental laws. [restrictive]

    After Suzanne left the factory, which is one of the most polluted Superfund sites in the country, she ran for Congress. [nonrestrictive]

    See also who/whom.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    their/there/they're

    Their is the possessive form of they. There is either an expletive or an adverb. They're is a contraction of they are.

    The chemists revised their report.

    There are three possible software solutions. [expletive]

    The hotel is hard to find, but the committee members are all staying there. [adverb]

    They're going to finish the project tomorrow.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    to/too/two

    To is a preposition or the marker of an infinitive. Too is an adverb meaning "excessively" or "also." Two is a number.

    Apply heat to the sample. [preposition]

    They promised to write a new summary next week. [marker of an infinitive]

    The pressure was too low. [excessively]

    The project director, too, thought it was too low. [also]

    We can approach the problem two ways.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    toward/towards

    Both forms are acceptable, although toward is generally preferred in the United States. Use one or the other consistently.

    Reference Link Text

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    unique

    Unique means "singular." A unique item has no peers, so it cannot be modified with adverbs such as most or very.

    Weak

    We came up with a very unique solution to the problem.

    Improved

    We came up with a unique solution to the problem.

    Weak

    We came up with a fairly unique solution to the problem.

    Improved

    We came up with an unusual solution to the problem.

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    Help: 4.6

    Viewing a Link: How to View a Referenced Handbook Page

    This feature allows you to view the Handbook page referenced by a link that has been inserted into a word processing document. This feature is useful to the writer returning to a word processing document to make changes based on feedback from an instructor, peer reviewer, or manager. While scanning the document, the writer will see the reference links that have been inserted in the document. The writer can then select a link and run View Handbook Link to see the referenced page of the Handbook.

    NOTE: View Handbook Link will launch your browser (and thus the Handbook) automatically if it's not already running

    Steps to View a Handbook Link

    1. Launch your word processor.
    2. Open the document containing the reference link. You will notice a link because it will be surrounded by its delimiters ( Adjective Clauses " delimiters.
    3. With the link selected , run View Handbook Link via:

      4. Mayfield Toolbar (Windows users)
      Ctrl + Alt + Shift + J (Windows users)
      Command + Option + J (Macintosh users)

    4. Your browser will be launched, if necessary, and will display the appropriate page of the Handbook.
    5. Once you have viewed the Handbook, you can return to your word processing document and continue editing your document.
    NOTE: In Windows, if your browser is minimized, it will stay minimized. Thus, even though the page you referenced will be displayed by your browser, you will not see it on your screen. You will hear a sound (beep, click, etc.) notifying you that the Handbook page is being displayed. You can then manually bring your browser to the front using Alt + Tab. Make sure that your browser window is open at all times to avoid confusion.

    How to Delete a Link or Comment from a Word Processing Document

    1. Once you are finished with a link or comment, you can easily delete it from the document the same way you would delete normal text. The links and comments are not write-protected.
    2. Remember to save the document after making changes.
    NOTE: Because reference links and comments are not write-protected, it is possible to edit them without realizing it. Be careful to avoid making such changes. Such changes to links will result in invalid links.

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    Help: 4.2

    Viewing the Handbook Using a WWW Browser

    In order to take full advantage of the Handbook, you will need to use Netscape Navigator 2.0 or 3.0 or Microsoft Internet Explorer 2.1 or 3.0 as your browser. Because the browser will be using only files located on your computer, a modem and Internet connection are not required. Simply launch your browser locally by double-clicking its icon or file name.

    NOTE: If you have multiple browsers installed on your system, make sure to select the same browser that you selected during installation. (If you want to change browsers, see Appendix B, Upgrading or Changing Your Word Processor or WWW Browser.)

    Windows Shortcut

      Launch the word processor you chose during installation.
      You do not need to open a document. Just be sure that the word processor is the active application.
      Press Ctrl + Alt + Shift + H to run Open Handbook. NOTE: The "H" is not case sensitive.

    Macintosh Shortcut

      You do not need to open any application.
      Press Command + Option + H to run Open Handbook. NOTE: The "H" is not case sensitive

    You should now be viewing the title page of The Mayfield Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing. If you are viewing a page other than the title page (or if you are unsure), scroll down to the end of the page, and click on the Home link.

    TIP: While viewing the home page for the first time, create a bookmark for future reference (see Useful Browser Functions). After doing this, you will be able to access the Handbook directly from your browser in one step.

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    Education Programs

    Undergraduate Programs

    Explore the journey designed to prepare future innovators, engineers, and industry leaders in Materials Science and Engineering

    About Our Undergraduates

    The undergraduate program at DMSE offers students a strong foundation in Materials Science and Engineering principles, while also exposing them to cutting-edge research and real-world applications. Our students are trained to think critically, solve complex engineering problems, and contribute to advancing technology across multiple industries.

    Opportunities for Undergraduates

    Research Projects

    Research Projects

    Students engage in industry-linked and faculty-led research projects, fostering innovation and practical skills.

    Internships

    Industrial Training

    Industrial placements provide students with hands-on experience in leading organizations across materials, manufacturing, and technology sectors.

    Global Exposure

    Global Exposure

    Participating in foreign industrial and graduate talks (NexusWave), as well as international conferences, gives undergraduates a platform to network and collaborate globally.

    Curriculum Overview

    The curriculum includes five specialized focus areas and comprehensive core modules

    ➤ Specialized Focus Areas

    • Polymer Engineering
    • Electronic Materials Engineering
    • Biomaterials Engineering
    • Construction Materials Engineering
    • Energy Materials Engineering

    ➤ Major Core Modules

    • Polymer Science and Technology
    • Ferrous Metallurgy
    • Mechanical Behaviour of Materials
    • Polymer Engineering
    • Ceramic Engineering
    • Characterization of Materials
    • Industrial Metallurgy
    • Selection of Materials and Failure Analysis

    Undergraduate Life at DMSE

    Life as a DMSE undergraduate is vibrant and dynamic. Beyond academics, students actively participate in student societies, sports, cultural activities, and leadership opportunities. This holistic environment ensures personal growth, teamwork, and the development of leadership skills essential for future success.

    Mayfield Handbook of Technical and Scientific Writing

    Explore the comprehensive guide to technical and scientific writing.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    awhile/a while

    Awhile is an adverb and is not preceded by a preposition. A while is a noun phrase. It may be preceded by a preposition (usually for or after); its noun, while, can be modified by an adjective.

    Pause awhile and then perform the procedure again. [The adverb awhile modifies the verb pause.]

    Pause for a while and then perform the procedure again. [The noun phrase a while is the object of the preposition for.]

    We paused for a long while before performing the procedure again. [The adjective long modifies the noun while.]

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    who/whom

    Who is used as a subject; whom is used as an object.

    The new staff member is an experienced field geologist who is familiar with the Mt. Isa stratification.

    The new staff member, whom the project director knows, is an experienced field geologist familiar with the Mt. Isa stratification.

     [Whom is the object of director knows.]

    See also the discussion of Pronoun Case.

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    who's/whose

    Who's, a contraction of who is, should generally be avoided in formal writing. Whose is the possessive form of who.

    Weak

    Who's planning to teach the Chaos seminar next semester?

    Improved

    Who is scheduled to teach the Chaos seminar next semester?

    Whose laboratory will get the new computers?

    He is one person whose laboratory will surely get the new computers.

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    Help: 2.5

    Accessing the Mayfield Toolbar

    For Windows, the Mayfield software functionality has been created by writing WordBasic or PerfectScript macros. Though you will find the macros accessible and able to run from the menu, you take an unnecessary risk in so accessing them: you might inadvertently delete or edit a macro, leaving the feature unusable. For this reason, you should access the features only through the toolbar buttons or keyboard shortcuts.

    A unique toolbar called the Mayfield Toolbar makes it unnecessary to select a macro from a list. This toolbar acts like other toolbars in that you can view or hide it without changing its function. It can be moved or resized to your liking. On the toolbar, you will find four functions: Open Handbook, Create Handbook Link, View Handbook Link, and Create Comment. These four buttons will run the macros needed to open the Handbook, create and view reference links within the Handbook, and insert comments into a completed document.

    For each function that is operated by running a macro, a corresponding shortcut key combination can run the macro automatically. You will find the appropriate key combinations in the preceding section and also in Chapter 4, where specific instructions on each feature are given.

    Microsoft Word Users

    The Mayfield Toolbar will normally be visible automatically after you run the setup program. If it is not visible, you can make it visible by performing the following steps.
    1. Launch Microsoft Word (you do not need to open a document),
    2. Go to the Menu bar, and select View, Toolbars. This window shows all the available toolbars, and each toolbar has an on/off toggle. Make sure that the toolbars you wish to have accessible for word processing are selected.
    3. Click on the Mayfield Toolbar.
    4. Close the View, Toolbars dialog box.

    Corel WordPerfect Users

    You can make the Mayfield Toolbar visible by performing the following steps.
    1. Launch WordPerfect (you do not need to open a document).
    2. Go to the menu bar, and select Edit, Preferences.
    3. Open the Preferences dialog box for File, Template.
    4. Make sure that the Additional Directory location specified is the one containing the Mayfield template (the "Mayfield.wpt" file). The default installation location is wpoffice\wpwin\wpdocs\template.
    5. Make sure the "Mayfield.wpt" file itself is selected in the Additional Objects Template location. Close the File, Template dialog box.
    6. Open the Preferences dialog box for Keyboard.
    7. Select Mayfield from the scrolling list; click Select to close the dialog box.
    8. Open the Preferences dialog box for Toolbar.
    9. Select Mayfield from the scrolling list; click Select to close the dialog box.
    10. Close the main Preferences window.

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    Help: 2.3

    Installation for Windows

    Windows 95 Users

    1. Close all applications that are currently running
    2. Insert Disk 1 into your floppy drive (or the CD-ROM into your CD-ROM drive).
    3. From the Taskbar, select START, RUN.
    4. Type A:\Win95\Setup, and press Enter. ("A" represents the floppy drive into which you have inserted the setup disk. Change the drive designation as appropriate.)
    5. Follow the setup instructions on the screen.
    6. See "Installation Details" (below) if necessary.

    Windows 3.1 Users

    1. Close all applications that are currently running.
    2. Insert Disk 1 into your floppy drive (or the CD-ROM into your CD-ROM drive).
    3. From the File menu in either the Program Manager or File Manager, select RUN.
    4. Type A:\Win31\Setup, press Enter. ("A" represents the floppy drive into which you have inserted the setup disk. Change the drive designation as appropriate.)
    5. Follow the setup instructions on the screen.
    6. See "Installation Details" (below) if necessary.

    Installation Details

    • The first Select Components window offers the following options:

    Install Handbook on Local Drive. Choose this option if you wish to install all files onto your hard drive.

    Run Handbook from CD-ROM. Choose this option if you need to conserve hard disk space. The Handbook files will not be installed, and will only be accessible via your CD-ROM. (This option will appear only if you are installing from CD ROM.)

    Modify Settings. Choose this option if you are only modifying your setup (for example, if you are only changing your word processor or browser).


  • All files will be installed by default into the following directory:
    • C:\ProgramFiles\Mayfield\TechBook\Handbook You are free to change this path during installation. You can change the drive and root directory, but we suggest "Mayfield\Techbook\Handbook" as the last portion of your path.

  • The next Select Components window will appear only if you have both Microsoft Word and Corel WordPerfect installed on your computer. The window offers the following options:

    • Microsoft Word Template. Check this box if you will be using Microsoft Word.

    WordPerfect Template. Check this box if you will be using Corel WordPerfect.


    You may choose to install the Handbook software for either or both of these word processors.

  • The next window will appear only if you have both Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator installed on your computer. The window offers the following options:

    • Microsoft Internet Explorer
    Netscape Navigator

    Choose the one browser you wish to use with the Handbook.

  • The next option will appear only if you are running Windows 3.1 and you chose WordPerfect as your word processor. This window asks you to locate the directory for the WordPerfect Additional Objects Template. It is very important that this file be installed in its proper location. The default path for a standard WordPerfect installation is:
    • C:\WPoffice\WPwin\WPdocs\Template

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    Help: 2.4

    Shortcut Key Combinations

    The following key combinations can be used for quick reference while using the Handbook. Each key combination runs a specific function. Each key combination is designed so that you press the first three keys simultaneously and hold them down, then press the fourth key lightly.
    Open Handbook Ctrl + Alt + Shift + H (memory aid: *H*andbook)
    Create Handbook Link Ctrl + Alt + Shift + G (memory aid: *G*lue link)
    View Handbook Link Ctrl + Alt + Shift + J (memory aid: *J*ump to link)
    Comment Style Ctrl + Alt + Shift + K (memory aid: *K*omment)

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    Help: 2.1

    System Requirements

    To use the electronic version of The Mayfield Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing for Windows, you need the following:
    • The master software disks (CD-ROM disk or three 3.5" floppy disks).
    • A standard IBM 386 or better (or 100% IBM-compatible) computer with one floppy disk drive and a hard disk drive (CD-ROM drive optional).
    • VGA or higher resolution monitor.
    • A graphics card compatible with Microsoft Windows 3.1 or later.
    • Sufficient random access memory (RAM) to run your word processor and browser at the same time. The exact amount of required RAM will vary in different word processor and browser configurations. If you do not have sufficient RAM, when you try to open your browser and word processor, you may get a memory error message from your operating system.
    • At least 1.0 megabyte of hard disk space (4.0 megabytes if all the Handbook files are to be stored on the hard disk).
    • One of the following operating systems: Microsoft Windows 3.1 running in either standard or enhanced mode, with DOS 3.3 or higher
      Microsoft Windows 95.
    • A Microsoft mouse or compatible pointing device.
    • CD-ROM drive (optional).

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    Help: 2.2

    Required Software

    You will need the following software installed on your computer before installing and using the Handbook.

    Windows 95 Users

    • One of the following word processors
    Microsoft Word 7.0
    Corel WordPerfect 7.0
  • One of the following WWW browsers
    • Microsoft Internet Explorer 3.0
    Netscape Navigator 2.0 or 3.0

    Windows 3.1 Users

    • One of the following word processors
    Microsoft Word 6.0
    Corel WordPerfect 6.0
  • One of the following WWW browsers
    • Microsoft Internet Explorer 2.1
    Netscape Navigator 2.0 or 3.0

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    Usage Glossary: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y

    your/you're

    Your is a personal pronoun denoting possession; you're is a contraction of you are.

    If you're going to work in the laboratory, be sure to wear your safety glasses.

    Reference Link Text

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    The Writing Timeline

    Writing is a process both linear and recursive. It is linear because effective writers construct documents in well-defined and ordered stages. It is also recursive, however, because at any point an author may need to return to a previous stage.

    Starting to Write

    The first stage is concerned with planning and document design and may or may not be collaborative . Identify the purpose of the document by clarifying both the reasons for its creation and its specific objectives . Often, technical and scientific documents are written as answers to a specific problem, which is articulated in a problem statement .

    Technical and scientific documents are tools designed to be used by their readers. Accordingly, define your audience --the person or persons who will be reading the document. Then determine your audience's level of expertise and their purpose in using the document . It is also important to assess the attitude of the audience toward both you and the document's subject matter.

    Once you have identified the document's purpose and audience , you should be able to determine the document's general type and specific format elements .

    Organizing Material

    Once you have defined the purpose , the problem , the audience , and document type, assemble your information. Sketch out a preliminary outline to organize it. Keeping purpose and audience in mind, sketch out graphics , such as tables , to display your data. Take care to give your reader a roadmap of the document.

    Drafting

    Like other stages, drafting may be collaborative . In any event, using your outline and preliminary graphics , write a first draft, a rough working version in which you get your ideas on paper. At this point in the process, do not be overly concerned about grammar, style, or usage. However, make sure that important reference information is available and that you follow a format appropriate to your document's type and purpose . Include graphics to illustrate and condense the information in your document.

    Revising

    Revision is not correcting grammatical errors or changing a few words; it is "re-seeing" your writing. If possible, put your first draft away for a day or two. Then, revise your document in three stages. First, check that the paper's format conforms to the conventions for its document type . Next revise for organization . Finally, bearing in mind document density , revise the content . Be certain that you have given proper credit to your sources and, if pertinent, that you have followed an appropriate citation style .

    Editing

    Edit paragraphs and sentences to make them easier to read by improving their clarity , conciseness , and coherence . Check that your choice of words is appropriate to the document's purpose and audience . Then correct any problems in grammar , including parts of speech , sentence parts , or types of sentences ; usage ; punctuation ; mechanics ; and spelling . Writers who are bilingual or not native speakers of English often need to perform a separate edit to catch specific types of problems in grammar and usage.

    Reviewing

    The last major step for most technical documents is one or more reviews . Writers of most technical and scientific documents ask peers to review their manuscripts for accuracy , clarity , coherence , and appropriateness . In many cases, a technical expert will review the document for technical content. An editor may review the document to ensure that it conforms to the organization's style and to correct any remaining problems. There may be legal reviews as well. Finally, a supervisor or a manager may review the document to ensure that it achieves the organization's purpose and is appropriate to the audience .

    Reference Link Text

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    Index

    Click on the letter that begins the term you are looking up. If you are a non-native speaker of English, you may want to look at Common Writing Problems for Non-Native Speakers of English.

    In this index, references beginning with "See" will take you to another index entry, whereas references beginning with "See also" may either take you to another index entry or link you directly to the corresponding handbook entry.

    A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

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    Help Contents

    1. Before You Begin

    2. Getting Started for Windows

    3. Getting Started for the Macintosh

    4. Software Features

  • Windows Shortcut

  • Macintosh Shortcut
    • 4.3 Moving through the Handbook
  • 4.4 Useful Browser Functions

  • 4.5 Creating a Link: How to Insert a Reference Link into a Word Processing Document
  • 4.6 Viewing a Link: How to View a Referenced Handbook Page
  • 4.7 Creating a Comment: How to Insert Personal Feedback into a Document

    • Appendix A. Definition of Terms

    Appendix B. Upgrading or Changing Your WWW Browser or Word Processor

    Appendix C. Error Messages and Troubleshooting

    Appendix D. List of Files after Installation

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    Credits

    Mayfield Electronic Handbook of Technical & Scientific Writing

    Authors: Leslie C. Perelman, Edward Barrett, and James Paradis
    ESL Consultant: Erika Mitchell

    Mayfield Publishing Company Team:
    Executive Producer and Publisher: Thomas V. Broadbent
    Senior Production Editor: April Wells-Hayes
    Marketing Manager: Joseph Hanson
    Art Director: Jeanne Schreiber
    Art Editor: Robin Mouat
    Copyeditor: Carol Crouse
    Manufacturing Manager: Randy Hurst

    Mayfield Hypertext Software Development Team:
    Producer: Corinne Wayshak, Muze Productions
    Engineering Project Management: David Yu, Bear River Associates, Inc.
    HTML Translation and Organizational Design: Erika Mitchell
    Lead Macintosh Development and Testing: Meredith Kearns, Bear River Associates, Inc.
    Lead Windows Development: May Quan, Bear River Associates, Inc.
    Graphic Design Lead: W. Bailey Hurt, Muze Productions
    Macintosh Development: Duane Murphy, Bear River Associates, Inc.
    Windows Development: Vince Gifford, Bear River Associates, Inc
    Content Testing: Philana Chow
    User Documentation: Jessie Albin, Bear River Associates, Inc.

    Mayfield Publishing Company, Inc.
    1280 Villa Street
    Mountain View, CA 94041
    415.960.3222
    <http://www.mayfieldpub.com>
    <mailto:hypertext@mayfieldpub.com>

    Muze Productions
    19672 Stevens Creek Blvd., #187
    Cupertino, CA 95014
    415.969.3312
    <http://www.muzeprod.com>
    <mailto:info@muzeprod.com>

    Bear River Associates, Inc.
    505 14th Street, Suite 600
    Oakland, CA 94612
    510.835.5300
    <http://www.bearriver.com>
    <mailto:info@bearriver.com>

    The following software components were used in the development of Mayfield Hypertext Software:

    KeyQuencer
    Mayfield Hypertext Software uses Binary Software's KeyQuencer, copyright 1996 by Binary Software, Inc., all rights reserved. KeyQuencer original concept, design and programming by Alessandro Levi Montalcini. Reproduced under license. More information about KeyQuencer can be found at <http://www.binarysoft.com>.

    Jon's Commands
    Design and programming by Jon Pugh.
    <http://www.infoworkshop.com/~jonpugh/>

    Metrowerks PowerPlant
    Copyright 1996 by Metrowerks Corporation. All rights reserved.
    <http://www.metrowerks.com>

    The Gray Council
    Copyright 1996 by Trygve Isaacson. All rights reserved.
    <http://www.bombaydigital.com>

    MoreFiles
    Design and programming by Jim Luther with significant code contributions by Nitin Ganatra. Copyright 1992-1996 by Apple Computer, Inc. Portions copyright 1995 by Jim Luther. All rights reserved.

    Find Icon Library
    Design and programming by James W. Walker.

    Other products and company names used may be trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners and are used for identification purposes only, with no intent to infringe.

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    Section 3.5.3

    Indexes

    Use well-structured indexes to make material in long documents accessible to your audience.

    Indexes are extremely useful tools for allowing a reader to retrieve all important information. Construct an index that will be helpful for all your audience's purposes in using the document and that will be appropriate for their level of expertise.

    Guidelines for Constructing an Index

    • When writing a document, use features available in most word processors to mark items that should be included in an index.

    • Include every important subject, topic, subtopic, and proper name in the index.

    • Most indexes consist of two levels of entries, a main heading and a subheading:

    Operating systems
     AMOEBA
     DOS
     DOS/Windows
     UNIX

  • Use cross-references in appropriate places in the index to guide the reader to related information in the book:

    • Word processors
     MS Word
     NoteBene
     WordPerfect
     See also Editors

    Reference Link Text

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